Extra element theorem - Revision history

en>Brews ohare: /* See also */ Signal flow

2015-01-01T13:45:35Z

en>Jamesmcmahon0: Typo fixing, typo(s) fixed: and and → and using AWB

2014-02-14T10:48:51Z

Typo fixing, typo(s) fixed: and and → and using AWB

← Older revision		Revision as of 12:48, 14 February 2014
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	~~In [[chemistry]], '''coprecipitation (CPT)''' or '''co-precipitation'''~~ is ~~the carrying down by a [[precipitate]] of substances normally soluble under the conditions employed.<ref>Patnaik, P.~~ ''Dean's Analytical Chemistry Handbook'', 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill, '''2004'''.</ref> Analogously, in [[medicine]], coprecipitation is specifically the precipitation of an unbound "antigen along with an antigen-antibody complex".<ref>http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?coprecipitation. Accessed 5/9/07.</ref>		Jayson Berryhill is how I'm known as and my spouse doesn't like it at all. What me and my family members adore is to climb but I'm considering on beginning some thing new. Her family life in Alaska but her spouse wants them to transfer. Credit authorising is how she tends to make a residing.<br><br>Feel free to visit my web blog free psychic reading ([http://modenpeople.co.kr/modn/qna/292291 simply click the up coming article])

	~~Coprecipitation is an important issue in [[chemical analysis]], where~~ it ~~is often undesirable, but in some cases it can be exploited~~. ~~In [[gravimetric analysis]], which consists on precipitating the [[analyte]]~~ and ~~measuring its mass to determine its concentration or purity, coprecipitation~~ is ~~a problem because undesired impurities often coprecipitate with the analyte, resulting in excess mass. This problem can often be mitigated by "digestion" (waiting for the precipitate~~ to ~~equilibrate and form larger, purer particles) or by redissolving the sample and precipitating it again.<ref name="harvey">Harvey, D. ''Modern Analytical Chemistry'~~'. ~~McGraw-Hill, '''2000'''.</ref>~~

	~~[[File:Co-precipitation.png\|thumb\| Typical co-precipitation method for micro and nano particle synthesis ]]~~

	~~On the other hand,~~ in the analysis of trace elements, as is often the case in [[radiochemistry]], coprecipitation is often the only way of separating an element. Since the trace element is too dilute (sometimes less than a part per trillion) to precipitate by conventional means, it is typically coprecipitated with a ''carrier'', a substance that has a similar crystalline structure that can incorporate the desired element. An example is the separation of [[francium]] from other radioactive elements by coprecipitating it with [[caesium]] salts such as [[caesium perchlorate]]. [[Otto Hahn]] is credited for promoting the use of coprecipitation in radiochemistry.

	There are three main mechanisms of coprecipitation: inclusion, occlusion, and adsorption.<ref name="harvey" /> An '''inclusion''' occurs when the impurity occupies a lattice site in the [[crystal structure]] of the carrier, resulting in a [[crystallographic defect]]; this can happen when the [[ionic radius]] and charge of the impurity are similar to those of the carrier. An '''adsorbate''' is an impurity that is weakly bound ([[adsorbed]]) to ~~the surface of the precipitate~~. ~~An '''occlusion''' occurs when an adsorbed impurity gets physically trapped inside the crystal as it grows.~~

	~~Besides its applications in chemical analysis and in radiochemistry, coprecipitation~~ is ~~also "potentially important~~ to many environmental issues closely related to water resources, including acid mine drainage, radionuclide migration in fouled waste repositories, metal contaminant transport at industrial and defense sites, metal concentrations in aquatic systems, and wastewater treatment technology".<ref>http://www.cosis.net/abstracts/EAE03/06552/EAE03-J-06552-1.pdf . Accessed May 10, 2007.</ref>

	~~Coprecipitation is also used as~~ a ~~method of [[magnetic nanoparticle]] synthesis~~.<~~ref name="Angew.chem.2007"~~>~~A.-H. Lu, E. L. Salabas and F. Schüth, Angew. Chem., Int. Ed., 2007, 46,1222–1244~~<~~/ref~~>

	~~== Distribution between precipitate and solution ==~~
	~~There are two models describing of the distribution of the tracer compound between the two phases~~ (the precipitate and the solution):<ref>Otto Hahn, "Applied Radiochemistry", Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, USA, 1936.</ref><ref>ALAN TOWNSHEND and EWALD JACKWERTH, "PRECIPITATION OF MAJOR CONSTITUENTS FOR TRACE PRECONCENTRATION : POTENTIAL AND PROBLEMS", Pure & App. Chem., Vol.61, No.9, pp. 1643-1656, 1989., [http://~~www~~.~~iupac.org/publications/pac/1989/pdf/6109x1643~~.~~pdf (pdf)]<~~/~~ref>~~

	* Doerner-Hoskins law (logarithmic):
	~~:<math>\ln{a \over {a-x}} = \lambda \ln{ b \over {b-y}}<~~/~~math>~~

	* Berthelot-Nernst law:
	~~:<math>{x \over {a-x}} = D {y \over {b-y}}<~~/~~math>~~

	~~where:~~

	~~: a and b are the initial concentrations of the tracer and carrier, respectively;~~
	~~: a-x and b-y are the concentrations of tracer and carrier after separation;~~
	~~: x and y are the amounts of the tracer and carrier on the precipitate;~~
	~~: D and λ are~~ the ~~[[distribution coefficient]~~]s.

	~~For D and λ greater than unity, the precipitate is enriched in the tracer.~~

	~~Depending on the co-precipitation system and conditions either λ or D may be constant.~~

	The derivation of the Doerner-Hoskins law assumes that there in no mass exchange between the interior of the precipitating crystals and the solution. When this assumption is fulfilled, then the content of the tracer in the crystal is non-uniform (the crystals are said to be heterogeneous). When the Berthelot-Nernst law applies, then the concentration of the tracer in the interior of the crystal is uniform (and the crystals are said to be homogeneous). This is the case when diffusion in the interior is possible (like in the liquids) or when the initial small crystals are allowed to recrystalize. Kinetic effects (like speed of crystallization and presence of mixing) play a role.

	~~== See also ==~~
	* [[Fajans-Paneth-Hahn Law]]

	~~==References==~~
	~~{{reflist\|2}}~~

	~~[[Category:Chemical processes]]~~
	~~[[Category:Analytical chemistry]]~~
	~~[[Category:Radiochemistry]]~~

en>Yobot: Reference before punctuation detected and fixed using AWB (9585)

2013-11-07T22:18:50Z

Reference before punctuation detected and fixed using AWB (9585)

← Older revision		Revision as of 00:18, 8 November 2013
Line 1:		Line 1:
	~~Hello~~, ~~my name~~ is ~~Felicidad but~~ [http://~~Www~~.~~Cars~~.~~com~~/go/~~advice~~/~~Story~~.~~jsp?section~~=~~buy&story=usedWarranty&subject=warranty I don~~'~~t] like auto [http://Www~~.~~Angieslist~~.~~com~~/~~articles/what~~-~~does~~-and~~-doesnt-your-auto-warranty-cover.htm warranty extended~~] ~~car warranty when individuals use my complete name~~. ~~She works as~~ a ~~extended car warranty financial officer and she will not alter~~ it ~~anytime soon~~. ~~Years in~~ the ~~past we moved to Arizona but my~~ [~~http~~:~~//mcb-law~~.~~net~~/~~great-ideas-about-auto-repair-that-you-~~can~~-use/ extended auto warranty~~] ~~wife wants us~~ to ~~transfer~~. ~~Camping~~ is ~~something~~ that [http://~~Www~~.Ag.~~State.Mn.us~~/~~consumer~~/~~cars~~/~~mncarlaws~~/~~mncarlaws_2~~.~~asp I've carried~~] ~~out for many years~~.<br><br>~~My weblog;~~ [http://www.~~focusd~~.~~co/UserProfile~~/~~tabid~~/61/~~userId~~/~~191~~/~~Default~~.~~aspx extended car warranty~~] (~~[http~~://~~gcjcteam~~.~~org/index~~.~~php?mid~~=~~etc_video&document_srl~~=~~654672&sort_index~~=~~regdate&order_type~~=~~desc view website~~])		In [[chemistry]], '''coprecipitation (CPT)''' or '''co-precipitation''' is the carrying down by a [[precipitate]] of substances normally soluble under the conditions employed.<ref>Patnaik, P. ''Dean's Analytical Chemistry Handbook'', 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill, '''2004'''.</ref> Analogously, in [[medicine]], coprecipitation is specifically the precipitation of an unbound "antigen along with an antigen-antibody complex".<ref>http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?coprecipitation. Accessed 5/9/07.</ref>

			Coprecipitation is an important issue in [[chemical analysis]], where it is often undesirable, but in some cases it can be exploited. In [[gravimetric analysis]], which consists on precipitating the [[analyte]] and measuring its mass to determine its concentration or purity, coprecipitation is a problem because undesired impurities often coprecipitate with the analyte, resulting in excess mass. This problem can often be mitigated by "digestion" (waiting for the precipitate to equilibrate and form larger, purer particles) or by redissolving the sample and precipitating it again.<ref name="harvey">Harvey, D. ''Modern Analytical Chemistry''. McGraw-Hill, '''2000'''.</ref>

			[[File:Co-precipitation.png\|thumb\| Typical co-precipitation method for micro and nano particle synthesis ]]

			On the other hand, in the analysis of trace elements, as is often the case in [[radiochemistry]], coprecipitation is often the only way of separating an element. Since the trace element is too dilute (sometimes less than a part per trillion) to precipitate by conventional means, it is typically coprecipitated with a ''carrier'', a substance that has a similar crystalline structure that can incorporate the desired element. An example is the separation of [[francium]] from other radioactive elements by coprecipitating it with [[caesium]] salts such as [[caesium perchlorate]]. [[Otto Hahn]] is credited for promoting the use of coprecipitation in radiochemistry.

			There are three main mechanisms of coprecipitation: inclusion, occlusion, and adsorption.<ref name="harvey" /> An '''inclusion''' occurs when the impurity occupies a lattice site in the [[crystal structure]] of the carrier, resulting in a [[crystallographic defect]]; this can happen when the [[ionic radius]] and charge of the impurity are similar to those of the carrier. An '''adsorbate''' is an impurity that is weakly bound ([[adsorbed]]) to the surface of the precipitate. An '''occlusion''' occurs when an adsorbed impurity gets physically trapped inside the crystal as it grows.

			Besides its applications in chemical analysis and in radiochemistry, coprecipitation is also "potentially important to many environmental issues closely related to water resources, including acid mine drainage, radionuclide migration in fouled waste repositories, metal contaminant transport at industrial and defense sites, metal concentrations in aquatic systems, and wastewater treatment technology".<ref>http://www.cosis.net/abstracts/EAE03/06552/EAE03-J-06552-1.pdf . Accessed May 10, 2007.</ref>

			Coprecipitation is also used as a method of [[magnetic nanoparticle]] synthesis.<ref name="Angew.chem.2007">A.-H. Lu, E. L. Salabas and F. Schüth, Angew. Chem., Int. Ed., 2007, 46,1222–1244</ref>

			== Distribution between precipitate and solution ==
			There are two models describing of the distribution of the tracer compound between the two phases (the precipitate and the solution):<ref>Otto Hahn, "Applied Radiochemistry", Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, USA, 1936.</ref><ref>ALAN TOWNSHEND and EWALD JACKWERTH, "PRECIPITATION OF MAJOR CONSTITUENTS FOR TRACE PRECONCENTRATION : POTENTIAL AND PROBLEMS", Pure & App. Chem., Vol.61, No.9, pp. 1643-1656, 1989., [http://www.iupac.org/publications/pac/1989/pdf/6109x1643.pdf (pdf)]</ref>

			* Doerner-Hoskins law (logarithmic):
			:<math>\ln{a \over {a-x}} = \lambda \ln{ b \over {b-y}}</math>

			* Berthelot-Nernst law:
			:<math>{x \over {a-x}} = D {y \over {b-y}}</math>

			where:

			: a and b are the initial concentrations of the tracer and carrier, respectively;
			: a-x and b-y are the concentrations of tracer and carrier after separation;
			: x and y are the amounts of the tracer and carrier on the precipitate;
			: D and λ are the [[distribution coefficient]]s.

			For D and λ greater than unity, the precipitate is enriched in the tracer.

			Depending on the co-precipitation system and conditions either λ or D may be constant.

			The derivation of the Doerner-Hoskins law assumes that there in no mass exchange between the interior of the precipitating crystals and the solution. When this assumption is fulfilled, then the content of the tracer in the crystal is non-uniform (the crystals are said to be heterogeneous). When the Berthelot-Nernst law applies, then the concentration of the tracer in the interior of the crystal is uniform (and the crystals are said to be homogeneous). This is the case when diffusion in the interior is possible (like in the liquids) or when the initial small crystals are allowed to recrystalize. Kinetic effects (like speed of crystallization and presence of mixing) play a role.

			== See also ==
			* [[Fajans-Paneth-Hahn Law]]

			==References==
			{{reflist\|2}}

			[[Category:Chemical processes]]
			[[Category:Analytical chemistry]]
			[[Category:Radiochemistry]]

88.65.208.178 at 13:54, 9 August 2012

2012-08-09T13:54:03Z

New page

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← Older revision		Revision as of 15:45, 1 January 2015
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