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en>Rjwilmsi: Journal cites (minus instead of endash in pages), using AWB (10484)

2014-11-10T16:34:44Z

Journal cites (minus instead of endash in pages), using AWB (10484)

← Older revision		Revision as of 18:34, 10 November 2014
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	~~The '''Fried parameter'''<ref>{{cite journal\|last=Fried\|first=D. L.\|title=Optical Resolution Through~~ a ~~Randomly Inhomogeneous Medium for Very Long and Very Short Exposures\|journal=Journal~~ of the ~~Optical Society of America\|year=1966\|month=October\|volume=56\|issue=10\|pages=1372–1379\|doi=10~~.~~1364~~/~~JOSA~~.56.~~001372\|url=~~http://www.~~opticsinfobase~~.~~org~~/~~abstract.cfm?id=53167\|bibcode=1966JOSA.~~.~~.56.1372F}}</ref> or '''Fried's coherence length''' (commonly designated as~~ <~~math~~>~~r_0~~<~~/math~~>) is a ~~measure~~ of the ~~quality of optical transmission through the [[atmosphere]] due to random inhomogeneities~~ in ~~its refractive index~~. In ~~practice, such inhomogeneities~~ are ~~primarily due~~ to tiny variations in temperature (and thus density) on smaller spatial scales resulting from random turbulent mixing of larger temperature variations on larger spatial scales as first [[Turbulence#Kolmogorov'~~s theory of 1941\|described]] by~~ [~~[Kolmogorov]]~~. ~~The Fried parameter has units of length and is typically expressed in centimeters~~. ~~It is defined as the diameter of a circular area over which the [[root mean square\|rms~~]~~] [[wavefront]] aberration due~~ to ~~passage through~~ the ~~atmosphere is equal~~ to ~~1 [[radian]]~~. ~~As such, imaging from telescopes with apertures much smaller than~~ <~~math~~>~~r_0~~<~~/math~~> ~~is less affected by atmospheric [[Astronomical seeing\|seeing]]~~ than ~~[[diffraction]] due~~ to ~~the telescope's small aperture~~. ~~However the imaging resolution of telescopes with apertures much larger than~~ <~~math~~>~~r_0~~<~~/math~~> ~~(thus including all professional telescopes) will be limited by the turbulent atmosphere~~, ~~preventing the instrument from approaching the~~ [~~[diffraction limit]~~].		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	~~Although not explicitly written in his article~~, the ~~Fried parameter at wavelength~~ <~~math~~>~~\lambda~~<~~/math~~> ~~can~~ be ~~expressed<ref>{{cite book\|last=Hardy\|first=Johw W~~.~~\|title=Adaptive optics~~ for ~~astronomical telescopes\|year=1998\|publisher=Oxford University Press\|url=~~http://~~openlibrary~~.~~org~~/~~works~~/~~OL2633873W~~/~~Adaptive_optics_for_astronomical_telescopes\|page=92\|isbn=0~~-19-~~509019~~-~~5}}</ref>~~ in ~~terms of the so~~-~~called [[Astronomical seeing#The profile\|atmospheric turbulence strength]] <math>C_n^2</math> (which is actually a function of temperature fluctuations~~ as well ~~as turbulence) along~~ <~~math~~>z'<~~/math~~> ~~the path of the starlight :~~

	~~<math>~~
	~~r_0 = \left [ 0~~.~~423 \, k^2 \, \int_{\mathrm{Path}} C_n^2(z') \, dz' \right ]^{-3/5}~~
	~~</math>~~

	~~where <math>k= 2 \pi / \lambda </math> is~~ the ~~[[wavenumber]]. If not specified~~, ~~a reference~~ to ~~the Fried Parameter in astronomy is understood~~ to ~~refer~~ to ~~a path in the vertical direction~~. ~~When observing at a [[Zenith#Relevance and use\|zenith angle]]~~ <~~math~~>~~\zeta~~<~~/math~~>, ~~the line~~ of ~~sight passes through an air column which~~ is ~~<math>\sec \zeta</math> times longer~~, ~~producing~~ a ~~greater disturbance in the wavefront quality~~. ~~This results in a smaller~~ <~~math~~>~~r_0~~<~~/math~~>, ~~so that~~ in ~~terms of the~~ '~~'vertical'' path ''z'' the operative Fried parameter <math>r_0</math> is reduced according to~~:

	~~<math>~~
	~~r_0 = \left [ 0.423 \, k^2 \, \sec \zeta \int_{\mathrm{Vertical}} C_n^2(z) \, dz \right ]^{-3~~/~~5} = (\cos \zeta)^{3~~/~~5} \ r_0^{(vertical)}~~.
	</~~math>~~

	~~At locations selected for observatories, typical values for <math>r_0<~~/~~math> range from 10 cm~~ for ~~average seeing~~ to ~~20 cm under excellent seeing conditions~~. ~~The angular resolution is then limited~~ to ~~about~~ <~~math~~>~~\lambda / r_0~~<~~/math~~> ~~due~~ to ~~the effect~~ of ~~the atmosphere~~, ~~whereas~~ the ~~[[Angular resolution\|resolution due to diffraction]] by a circular aperture of diameter <math>D</math> is generally given as <math>1~~.~~22 \lambda / D~~<~~/math~~>~~. Since professional telescopes have diameters~~ <~~math>D \gg r_0</math~~>, ~~they~~ can ~~only obtain~~ an ~~image resolution approaching their diffraction limits by employing [[adaptive optics]]~~.

	~~Because <math>r_0</math>~~ is a ~~function of wavelength, varying as~~ <~~math~~>~~\lambda ^{6/5}~~<~~/math~~>, ~~its value is only meaningful~~ in ~~relation to a specified wavelength. When not stated explicitely~~, the ~~wavelength is typically understood to be~~ <~~math~~>~~\lambda = 0.5 \mu m~~<~~/math~~>.

	~~== See also ==~~
	* [[Astronomical seeing]]
	* [[Adaptive optics]]
	* [[Greenwood frequency]]

	~~== References ==~~
	~~{{reflist}}~~

	~~[[Category:Astronomical imaging]]~~

en>Anrnusna at 07:04, 19 September 2013

2013-09-19T07:04:54Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 09:04, 19 September 2013
Line 1:		Line 1:
	~~Internet affiliate marketing can be~~ a ~~good way~~ for ~~a person~~ or ~~business to earn money. Affiliate marketing~~ is ~~very often over looked but affiliate marketing could be~~ a ~~win-win for each party concerned. Internet affiliate marketing assists out every party~~ in ~~many different ways~~. ~~To begin with many people~~ are ~~looking~~ to ~~make an income~~ on ~~the web~~. ~~Many people do not have~~ the ~~methods to build~~ a ~~large business and they almost certainly do not have~~ the ~~name recognition many of~~ the ~~bigger organizations have~~. ~~So affiliate marketing may make sense for someone trying~~ to ~~make money o-nline because they"re generally given all~~ the ~~marketing tools needed to promote~~ the ~~company,~~ including ~~banners~~, ~~links, and signature links. Affiliate marketing is practical~~ from ~~a business standpoint since internet marketing allows a business to get thousands and thousands of free salesmen trying to sell their product~~. ~~It is also a huge gain for businesses since they do~~ not ~~have to pay wages or benefits~~, ~~when an affiliate makes a sale businesses only have to pay. And they just pay a portion of that purchase. From~~ the ~~business point of view it"s like free money~~. ~~Clicking [~~http://~~cohere~~.~~open.ac.uk~~/~~user.php?userid~~=~~82224500460700001405361776 Cohere~~ >~~>> make~~ the ~~connection~~] ~~possibly provides suggestions you should use with your dad.~~ <br><br>~~Affiliate marketing can be perfect for anyone seeking to make money on line. A lot~~ of the ~~time most~~ of the ~~setup work~~ is ~~completed for you by~~ the ~~organization~~. ~~All you need~~ to ~~accomplish~~ is ~~drive traffic~~ to ~~your links or banners~~. ~~Typically many companies shell out about~~ a ~~large number of the total sales per customer~~, ~~it only really is dependent upon~~ the ~~business. Companies love having people meet up as affiliates because it~~ is ~~like free advertising for~~ the ~~company~~. As a ~~joint venture partner to be able to produce a lot~~ of ~~money you"ll want one of two things. You must have plenty of traffic and ticks likely~~ to ~~your ads and links~~. ~~Or you should provide high~~-~~ticket items or work with companies which give out a good affiliate proportion~~. ~~Internet affiliate marketing could make you plenty of money but it does take work~~, it&~~quot~~;~~s not something that occurs overnight~~. ~~Many people have discovered this~~ the ~~hard way.~~ <br><br>~~Affiliate marketing can be perfect for a business because internet marketing may help produce income. Affiliate marketing~~ is ~~used by many Fortune 500 companies~~ as ~~an easy way to help increase sales~~. ~~Why is affiliate marketing so perfect for so many companies could be the benefits provided through affiliate marketing~~. ~~You can literally~~ have ~~hundreds of thousands of entrepreneurs trying to sell your product for you~~, ~~at no cost to you~~. ~~All you do~~ is ~~if they do create a sale pay~~ a ~~percentage. That"s pure pro-fit, plus having affiliates sell your product doesn"t come with the head-aches~~ of ~~having employees. One thing to remember the better you look after your affiliates the better affiliates you will have selling for you. Some companies provide cars~~, ~~big bonuses, and holidays with their prime affiliates.~~ <br><br>~~Affiliate marketing~~ is ~~an excellent way~~ to ~~earn money whether you are a marketer or~~ a ~~company~~. ~~You ought~~ to ~~take full advantage of the benefits of affiliate marketing..~~<br><br>~~If you adored this write-up and you would certainly such as to get more info relating to~~ [~~http~~:~~//www.purevolume.com/listeners/skinnypulp9566 family health insurance~~] ~~kindly browse through our page.~~		The '''Fried parameter'''<ref>{{cite journal\|last=Fried\|first=D. L.\|title=Optical Resolution Through a Randomly Inhomogeneous Medium for Very Long and Very Short Exposures\|journal=Journal of the Optical Society of America\|year=1966\|month=October\|volume=56\|issue=10\|pages=1372–1379\|doi=10.1364/JOSA.56.001372\|url=http://www.opticsinfobase.org/abstract.cfm?id=53167\|bibcode=1966JOSA...56.1372F}}</ref> or '''Fried's coherence length''' (commonly designated as <math>r_0</math>) is a measure of the quality of optical transmission through the [[atmosphere]] due to random inhomogeneities in its refractive index. In practice, such inhomogeneities are primarily due to tiny variations in temperature (and thus density) on smaller spatial scales resulting from random turbulent mixing of larger temperature variations on larger spatial scales as first [[Turbulence#Kolmogorov's theory of 1941\|described]] by [[Kolmogorov]]. The Fried parameter has units of length and is typically expressed in centimeters. It is defined as the diameter of a circular area over which the [[root mean square\|rms]] [[wavefront]] aberration due to passage through the atmosphere is equal to 1 [[radian]]. As such, imaging from telescopes with apertures much smaller than <math>r_0</math> is less affected by atmospheric [[Astronomical seeing\|seeing]] than [[diffraction]] due to the telescope's small aperture. However the imaging resolution of telescopes with apertures much larger than <math>r_0</math> (thus including all professional telescopes) will be limited by the turbulent atmosphere, preventing the instrument from approaching the [[diffraction limit]].

			Although not explicitly written in his article, the Fried parameter at wavelength <math>\lambda</math> can be expressed<ref>{{cite book\|last=Hardy\|first=Johw W.\|title=Adaptive optics for astronomical telescopes\|year=1998\|publisher=Oxford University Press\|url=http://openlibrary.org/works/OL2633873W/Adaptive_optics_for_astronomical_telescopes\|page=92\|isbn=0-19-509019-5}}</ref> in terms of the so-called [[Astronomical seeing#The profile\|atmospheric turbulence strength]] <math>C_n^2</math> (which is actually a function of temperature fluctuations as well as turbulence) along <math>z'</math> the path of the starlight :

			<math>
			r_0 = \left [ 0.423 \, k^2 \, \int_{\mathrm{Path}} C_n^2(z') \, dz' \right ]^{-3/5}
			</math>

			where <math>k= 2 \pi / \lambda </math> is the [[wavenumber]]. If not specified, a reference to the Fried Parameter in astronomy is understood to refer to a path in the vertical direction. When observing at a [[Zenith#Relevance and use\|zenith angle]] <math>\zeta</math>, the line of sight passes through an air column which is <math>\sec \zeta</math> times longer, producing a greater disturbance in the wavefront quality. This results in a smaller <math>r_0</math>, so that in terms of the ''vertical'' path ''z'' the operative Fried parameter <math>r_0</math> is reduced according to:

			<math>
			r_0 = \left [ 0.423 \, k^2 \, \sec \zeta \int_{\mathrm{Vertical}} C_n^2(z) \, dz \right ]^{-3/5} = (\cos \zeta)^{3/5} \ r_0^{(vertical)}.
			</math>

			At locations selected for observatories, typical values for <math>r_0</math> range from 10 cm for average seeing to 20 cm under excellent seeing conditions. The angular resolution is then limited to about <math>\lambda / r_0</math> due to the effect of the atmosphere, whereas the [[Angular resolution\|resolution due to diffraction]] by a circular aperture of diameter <math>D</math> is generally given as <math>1.22 \lambda / D</math>. Since professional telescopes have diameters <math>D \gg r_0</math>, they can only obtain an image resolution approaching their diffraction limits by employing [[adaptive optics]].

			Because <math>r_0</math> is a function of wavelength, varying as <math>\lambda ^{6/5}</math>, its value is only meaningful in relation to a specified wavelength. When not stated explicitely, the wavelength is typically understood to be <math>\lambda = 0.5 \mu m</math>.

			== See also ==
			* [[Astronomical seeing]]
			* [[Adaptive optics]]
			* [[Greenwood frequency]]

			== References ==
			{{reflist}}

			[[Category:Astronomical imaging]]

en>Cg2916: /* Global */

2012-08-16T19:43:10Z

Global

New page

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