Superdense coding - Revision history

67.180.84.233: Attempted to make the discussion of bits strings more natural.

2014-12-03T09:00:04Z

Attempted to make the discussion of bits strings more natural.

← Older revision		Revision as of 11:00, 3 December 2014
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	Alyson is ~~the name people use~~ to ~~contact~~ me ~~and~~ I ~~think it sounds quite great~~ when ~~you say it~~. ~~To climb~~ is ~~some thing she would never give up~~. ~~Her family life in Ohio~~. ~~Office supervising~~ is ~~where my primary income arrives from but~~ I~~'ve usually wanted my personal company~~.<br><br>~~Also visit~~ my ~~homepage~~: [http://www.~~publicpledge~~.com/~~blogs/post/7034 free~~ psychic ~~reading~~]		Alyson is what my husband enjoys to call me but I don't like when individuals use my full name. Mississippi is the only location I've been residing in but I will have to transfer in a yr or two. He is an order clerk and it's something he truly appreciate. To perform lacross is something I truly enjoy doing.<br><br>Have a look at my site: [http://www.aseandate.com/index.php?m=member_profile&p=profile&id=13352970 phone psychic readings]

en>Harshitm26: /* Details */

2014-02-23T11:54:06Z

Details

← Older revision		Revision as of 13:54, 23 February 2014
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	~~In [[mathematics]], the '''Noether normalization lemma'''~~ is a result of [[commutative algebra]], introduced by [[Emmy Noether]] in 1926.<ref>{{harvnb\|Noether\|1926}}</ref> A simple version states that for any [[Field (mathematics)\|field]] ''k'', and any [[Finitely generated algebra\|finitely generated]] commutative [[algebra over a field\|''k''-algebra]] ''A'', there exists a nonnegative integer ''d'' and [[algebraically independent]] elements ''y''<sub>1</sub>, ''y''<sub>2</sub>, ..., ''y''<sub>''d''</sub> in ''A''		Alyson is the name people use to contact me and I think it sounds quite great when you say it. To climb is some thing she would never give up. Her family life in Ohio. Office supervising is where my primary income arrives from but I've usually wanted my personal company.<br><br>Also visit my homepage: [http://www.publicpledge.com/blogs/post/7034 free psychic reading]
	~~such that ''A'' is a finitely generated module over~~ the ~~polynomial ring ''S'':=''k''[''y''<sub>1</sub>, ''y''<sub>2</sub>, ..., ''y''<sub>''d''</sub>].~~

	~~The integer ''d'' is the [[Krull dimension]] of ''A'' (since ''A''~~ and ~~''S'' have the same dimension~~.~~) When ''A'' is an [[integral domain]], ''d'' is the [[transcendence degree]] of the [[field of fractions]] of ''A'' over ''k''.~~

	~~The theorem has geometric interpretation. Suppose ''A''~~ is ~~integral. Let ''S'' be the [[coordinate ring]] of ''d''-dimensional [[affine space]] <math>\mathbb A^d_k</math>, and ''A'' as the coordinate ring of~~ some ~~other ''d''-dimensional [[affine variety]] ''X''~~. Then the [[inclusion map]] ''S'' → ''A'' induces a surjective [[finite morphism]] of [[affine varieties]] <math>X\to \mathbb A^d_k</math>. The conclusion is that any [[affine variety]] is a [[branched covering]] of affine space.
	~~When ''k'' is infinite, such a branched covering map can be constructed by taking a general projection from an affine space containing ''X'' to a ''d''-dimensional subspace.~~

	More generally, in the language of schemes, the theorem can equivalently be stated as follows: every affine ''k''-scheme (of finite type) ''X'' is [[finite morphism\|finite]] over an affine ''n''-dimensional space. The theorem can be refined to include a chain of prime ideals of ''R'' (equivalently, irreducible subsets of ''X'') that are finite over the affine coordinate subspaces of the appropriate dimensions.<ref>{{harvnb\|Eisenbud\|1995\|loc=Theorem 13.3}}</ref>

	~~The form of the Noether normalization lemma stated above can be used as an important step~~ in ~~proving Hilbert's [[Nullstellensatz]]~~. ~~This gives it further geometric importance, at least formally, as the Nullstellensatz underlies the development of much of classical [[algebraic geometry]]. The theorem~~ is ~~also an important tool in establishing the notions of [[Krull dimension]] for ''k''-algebras.~~

	~~== Proof ==~~
	~~The following proof is due to Nagata and is taken~~ from Mumford's red book. A proof in the geometric flavor is also given in the page 127 of the red book and [http://mathoverflow.net/questions/42275/choosing-the-algebraic-independent-elements-in-noethers-normalization-lemma/42363#42363 this mathoverflow thread].

	The ring ''A'' in the lemma is generated as ''k''-algebra by elements, say, <math>y_1, ..., y_m</math> such that <math>y_1, ..., y_d</math> (some ''d'') are [[Algebraic independence\|algebraically independent]] over ''k'' and the rest are algebraic over <math>k[y_1, ..., y_d]</math>.<ref>cf. Exercise 16 in Ch. 5 of Atiyah-MacDonald, Introduction to commutative algebra.</ref> We shall induct on ''m''. If <math>m = d</math>, then the assertion is trivial. Assume now <math>m > d</math>. It is enough to show that there is a subring ''S'' of ''A'' that is generated by <math>m-1</math> elements and is such that ''A'~~' is finite over ''S'', for, by inductive hypothesis, we can find algebraically independent elements <math>x_1,~~ .~~.., x_d~~<~~/math~~> ~~of ''S'' such that ''S'' is finite over~~ <~~math~~>~~k[x_1, ..., x_d]</math>. Since <math>m > d</math>, there is a nonzero polynomial ''f'' in ''m'' variables over ''k'' such that~~
	~~:<math>f(y_1, ..., y_m) = 0</math>.~~
	~~Given an integer ''r'' which is determined later, set~~
	~~:<math>z_i = y_i - y_1^{r^{i-1}}, \quad 2 \le i \le m.</math>~~
	~~Then the preceding reads~~:
	~~:<math>f(y_1, z_2 + y_1^r, z_3 + y_1^{r^2}, ..., z_m + y_1^{r^{m-1}}) = 0</math>.~~
	~~Now, the highest term in <math>y_1</math> of <math>a y_1^{\alpha_1} \prod_2^m (z_i + y_1^{r^{i-1}})^{\alpha_i}, a \in k,</math> looks~~
	~~:<math>a y_1^{\alpha_1 + r \alpha_2 + ... + \alpha_m r^{m-1}}.</math>~~
	Thus, if ''r'' is larger than any exponent <math>\alpha_i</math> appearing in ''f'', then the highest term of <math>f(y_1, z_2 + y_1^r, z_3 + y_1^{r^2}, ..., z_m + y_1^{r^{m-1}})</math> in <math>y_1</math> also has the form as above. In other words, <math>y_1</math> is integral over <math>S = k[z_2, ..., z_m]</math>. Since <math>y_i = z_i + y_1^{r^{i-1}}</math> are also integral over that ring, ''A'' is integral over ''S''. It follows ''A'' is finite over ''S''.

	~~If ''A'' is an integral domain, then ''d'' is the transcendence degree of its field of fractions. Indeed, ''A'' and <math>S = k~~[y_1, ..., y_d]</math> have the same transcendence degree (i.e., the degree of the field of fractions) since the field of fractions of ''A'' is algebraic over that of ''S'' (as ''A'' is integral over ''S'') and ''S'' obviously has transcendence degree ''d''. Thus, it remains to show the Krull dimension of the polynomial ring ''S'' is ''d''. (this is also a consequence of [[dimension theory (algebra)\|dimension theory]].) We induct on ''d'', <math>d=0</math> being trivial. Since <math>0 \subsetneq (y_1) \subsetneq (y_1, y_2) \subsetneq \cdots \subsetneq (y_1, \dots, y_d)</math> is a chain of prime ideals, the dimension is at least ''d''. To get the reverse estimate, let <math>0 \subsetneq \mathfrak{p}_1 \subsetneq \cdots \subsetneq \mathfrak{p}_m</math> be a chain of prime ideals. Let <math>0 \ne u \in \mathfrak{p}_1</math>. We apply the noether normalization and get <math>T = k[u, z_2, \dots, z_d]</math> (in the normalization process, we're free to choose the first variable) such that ''S'' is integral over ''T''. By inductive hypothesis, <math>T/(u)</math> has dimension ''d'' - 1. By [[incomparability]], <math>\mathfrak{p}_i \cap T</math> is a chain of length <math>m</math> and then, in <math>T/(\mathfrak{p}_1 \cap T)</math>, it becomes a chain of length <math>m-1</math>. Since <math>\operatorname{dim} T/(\mathfrak{p}_1 \cap T) \le \operatorname{dim} T/(u)</math>, we have <math>m - 1 \le d - 1</math>. Hence, <math>\dim S \le d</math>.

	~~== Notes ==~~
	~~{{reflist}}~~

	~~==References==~~
	*{{Citation \| last1=Eisenbud \| first1=David \| author1-link=David Eisenbud \| title=Commutative algebra. With a view toward algebraic geometry \| publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]] \| location=Berlin, New York \| series=[[Graduate Texts in Mathematics]] \| isbn=3-540-94268-8 \| mr=1322960 \| year=1995 \| volume=150 \| zbl=0819.13001 }}
	*{{Springer\|id=n/n066790\|title=Noether theorem}}. NB the lemma is in the updating comments.
	*{{citation
	~~\|last=Noether \|first=Emmy \|authorlink=Emmy Noether~~
	~~\|year=1926~~
	~~\|title=Der Endlichkeitsatz der Invarianten endlicher linearer Gruppen der Charakteristik ''p''~~
	~~\|url=~~http://~~gdz.sub~~.~~uni-goettingen~~.de/~~no_cache~~/~~dms~~/~~load/img/?IDDOC=63971~~
	~~\|journal=[[Nachrichten von der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen]]~~
	~~\|volume= \|pages=28–35~~
	~~\|doi=~~
	}}

	~~[[Category:Commutative algebra]]~~
	~~[[Category:Algebraic varieties]]~~
	~~[[Category:Lemmas]]~~
	~~[[Category:Algebraic geometry]~~]

en>Alex3yoyo: Added {{lead too short}}, {{more footnotes}} and {{ref improve}} tags (within {{multiple issues}}) to article (TW)

2013-08-29T19:14:24Z

Added {{lead too short}}, {{more footnotes}} and {{ref improve}} tags (within {{multiple issues}}) to article (TW)

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:14, 29 August 2013
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	~~She~~ is ~~known~~ by the ~~name~~ of ~~Myrtle Shryock~~. ~~California~~ is ~~where I~~'~~ve always been living~~ and ~~I adore~~ every ~~day living right here~~. ~~To gather cash~~ is ~~one~~ of the ~~things I love most~~. ~~I am~~ a ~~meter reader~~.<br><br>~~Look into my web blog~~ [~~http~~://~~vei~~.~~cuaed~~.~~unam~~.mx/es/~~node~~/~~4882 vei~~.~~cuaed~~.~~unam~~.mx]		In [[mathematics]], the '''Noether normalization lemma''' is a result of [[commutative algebra]], introduced by [[Emmy Noether]] in 1926.<ref>{{harvnb\|Noether\|1926}}</ref> A simple version states that for any [[Field (mathematics)\|field]] ''k'', and any [[Finitely generated algebra\|finitely generated]] commutative [[algebra over a field\|''k''-algebra]] ''A'', there exists a nonnegative integer ''d'' and [[algebraically independent]] elements ''y''<sub>1</sub>, ''y''<sub>2</sub>, ..., ''y''<sub>''d''</sub> in ''A''
			such that ''A'' is a finitely generated module over the polynomial ring ''S'':=''k''[''y''<sub>1</sub>, ''y''<sub>2</sub>, ..., ''y''<sub>''d''</sub>].

			The integer ''d'' is the [[Krull dimension]] of ''A'' (since ''A'' and ''S'' have the same dimension.) When ''A'' is an [[integral domain]], ''d'' is the [[transcendence degree]] of the [[field of fractions]] of ''A'' over ''k''.

			The theorem has geometric interpretation. Suppose ''A'' is integral. Let ''S'' be the [[coordinate ring]] of ''d''-dimensional [[affine space]] <math>\mathbb A^d_k</math>, and ''A'' as the coordinate ring of some other ''d''-dimensional [[affine variety]] ''X''. Then the [[inclusion map]] ''S'' → ''A'' induces a surjective [[finite morphism]] of [[affine varieties]] <math>X\to \mathbb A^d_k</math>. The conclusion is that any [[affine variety]] is a [[branched covering]] of affine space.
			When ''k'' is infinite, such a branched covering map can be constructed by taking a general projection from an affine space containing ''X'' to a ''d''-dimensional subspace.

			More generally, in the language of schemes, the theorem can equivalently be stated as follows: every affine ''k''-scheme (of finite type) ''X'' is [[finite morphism\|finite]] over an affine ''n''-dimensional space. The theorem can be refined to include a chain of prime ideals of ''R'' (equivalently, irreducible subsets of ''X'') that are finite over the affine coordinate subspaces of the appropriate dimensions.<ref>{{harvnb\|Eisenbud\|1995\|loc=Theorem 13.3}}</ref>

			The form of the Noether normalization lemma stated above can be used as an important step in proving Hilbert's [[Nullstellensatz]]. This gives it further geometric importance, at least formally, as the Nullstellensatz underlies the development of much of classical [[algebraic geometry]]. The theorem is also an important tool in establishing the notions of [[Krull dimension]] for ''k''-algebras.

			== Proof ==
			The following proof is due to Nagata and is taken from Mumford's red book. A proof in the geometric flavor is also given in the page 127 of the red book and [http://mathoverflow.net/questions/42275/choosing-the-algebraic-independent-elements-in-noethers-normalization-lemma/42363#42363 this mathoverflow thread].

			The ring ''A'' in the lemma is generated as ''k''-algebra by elements, say, <math>y_1, ..., y_m</math> such that <math>y_1, ..., y_d</math> (some ''d'') are [[Algebraic independence\|algebraically independent]] over ''k'' and the rest are algebraic over <math>k[y_1, ..., y_d]</math>.<ref>cf. Exercise 16 in Ch. 5 of Atiyah-MacDonald, Introduction to commutative algebra.</ref> We shall induct on ''m''. If <math>m = d</math>, then the assertion is trivial. Assume now <math>m > d</math>. It is enough to show that there is a subring ''S'' of ''A'' that is generated by <math>m-1</math> elements and is such that ''A'' is finite over ''S'', for, by inductive hypothesis, we can find algebraically independent elements <math>x_1, ..., x_d</math> of ''S'' such that ''S'' is finite over <math>k[x_1, ..., x_d]</math>. Since <math>m > d</math>, there is a nonzero polynomial ''f'' in ''m'' variables over ''k'' such that
			:<math>f(y_1, ..., y_m) = 0</math>.
			Given an integer ''r'' which is determined later, set
			:<math>z_i = y_i - y_1^{r^{i-1}}, \quad 2 \le i \le m.</math>
			Then the preceding reads:
			:<math>f(y_1, z_2 + y_1^r, z_3 + y_1^{r^2}, ..., z_m + y_1^{r^{m-1}}) = 0</math>.
			Now, the highest term in <math>y_1</math> of <math>a y_1^{\alpha_1} \prod_2^m (z_i + y_1^{r^{i-1}})^{\alpha_i}, a \in k,</math> looks
			:<math>a y_1^{\alpha_1 + r \alpha_2 + ... + \alpha_m r^{m-1}}.</math>
			Thus, if ''r'' is larger than any exponent <math>\alpha_i</math> appearing in ''f'', then the highest term of <math>f(y_1, z_2 + y_1^r, z_3 + y_1^{r^2}, ..., z_m + y_1^{r^{m-1}})</math> in <math>y_1</math> also has the form as above. In other words, <math>y_1</math> is integral over <math>S = k[z_2, ..., z_m]</math>. Since <math>y_i = z_i + y_1^{r^{i-1}}</math> are also integral over that ring, ''A'' is integral over ''S''. It follows ''A'' is finite over ''S''.

			If ''A'' is an integral domain, then ''d'' is the transcendence degree of its field of fractions. Indeed, ''A'' and <math>S = k[y_1, ..., y_d]</math> have the same transcendence degree (i.e., the degree of the field of fractions) since the field of fractions of ''A'' is algebraic over that of ''S'' (as ''A'' is integral over ''S'') and ''S'' obviously has transcendence degree ''d''. Thus, it remains to show the Krull dimension of the polynomial ring ''S'' is ''d''. (this is also a consequence of [[dimension theory (algebra)\|dimension theory]].) We induct on ''d'', <math>d=0</math> being trivial. Since <math>0 \subsetneq (y_1) \subsetneq (y_1, y_2) \subsetneq \cdots \subsetneq (y_1, \dots, y_d)</math> is a chain of prime ideals, the dimension is at least ''d''. To get the reverse estimate, let <math>0 \subsetneq \mathfrak{p}_1 \subsetneq \cdots \subsetneq \mathfrak{p}_m</math> be a chain of prime ideals. Let <math>0 \ne u \in \mathfrak{p}_1</math>. We apply the noether normalization and get <math>T = k[u, z_2, \dots, z_d]</math> (in the normalization process, we're free to choose the first variable) such that ''S'' is integral over ''T''. By inductive hypothesis, <math>T/(u)</math> has dimension ''d'' - 1. By [[incomparability]], <math>\mathfrak{p}_i \cap T</math> is a chain of length <math>m</math> and then, in <math>T/(\mathfrak{p}_1 \cap T)</math>, it becomes a chain of length <math>m-1</math>. Since <math>\operatorname{dim} T/(\mathfrak{p}_1 \cap T) \le \operatorname{dim} T/(u)</math>, we have <math>m - 1 \le d - 1</math>. Hence, <math>\dim S \le d</math>.

			== Notes ==
			{{reflist}}

			==References==
			*{{Citation \| last1=Eisenbud \| first1=David \| author1-link=David Eisenbud \| title=Commutative algebra. With a view toward algebraic geometry \| publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]] \| location=Berlin, New York \| series=[[Graduate Texts in Mathematics]] \| isbn=3-540-94268-8 \| mr=1322960 \| year=1995 \| volume=150 \| zbl=0819.13001 }}
			*{{Springer\|id=n/n066790\|title=Noether theorem}}. NB the lemma is in the updating comments.
			*{{citation
			\|last=Noether \|first=Emmy \|authorlink=Emmy Noether
			\|year=1926
			\|title=Der Endlichkeitsatz der Invarianten endlicher linearer Gruppen der Charakteristik ''p''
			\|url=http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/no_cache/dms/load/img/?IDDOC=63971
			\|journal=[[Nachrichten von der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen]]
			\|volume= \|pages=28–35
			\|doi=
			}}

			[[Category:Commutative algebra]]
			[[Category:Algebraic varieties]]
			[[Category:Lemmas]]
			[[Category:Algebraic geometry]]

en>Ruud Koot: copyedit

2012-08-06T23:49:59Z

copyedit

New page

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