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'''Wind engineering''' analyzes effects of [[wind]] in the natural and the [[built environment]] and studies the possible damage, inconvenience or benefits which may result from wind. In the field of [[structural engineering]] it includes strong winds, which may cause discomfort, as well as extreme winds, such as in a [[tornado]], [[hurricane]] or [[heavy storm]], which may cause widespread destruction. In the fields of [[wind energy]] and [[air pollution]] it also includes low and moderate winds as these are relevant to electricity production resp. dispersion of contaminants.

Wind engineering draws upon [[meteorology]], [[fluid dynamics]], [[mechanics]], [[geographic information system]]s and a number of specialist [[engineering]] disciplines including [[aerodynamics]], and [[structural dynamics]]. The tools used include [[atmospheric model]]s, atmospheric boundary layer [[wind tunnel]]s, open jet facilities <ref>{{cite journal|last=ALY|first=Aly Mousaad|coauthors=Arindam Gan Chowdhury and Girma Bitsuamlak|title=Wind profile management and blockage assessment for a new 12-fan Wall of Wind facility at FIU|journal=Wind and Structures, An International Journal|year=2011|volume=14|issue=4|pages=285–300|url=http://technopress.kaist.ac.kr/?page=container&journal=was&volume=14&num=4#}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=ALY|first=Aly Mousaad|coauthors=Girma Bitsuamlak and Arindam Gan Chowdhury|title=Florida International University’s Wall of Wind: A Tool for Improving Construction Materials and Methods for Hurricane-Prone Regions|journal=Vulnerability, Uncertainty, and Risk: Analysis, Modeling, and Management|year=2011|url=http://cedb.asce.org/cgi/WWWdisplay.cgi?274140}}</ref> and [[computational fluid dynamics]] models.

Wind engineering involves, among other topics:
* Wind impact on structures (buildings, bridges, towers).
* Wind comfort near buildings.
* Effects of wind on the ventilation system in a building.
* Wind climate for wind energy.
* Air pollution near buildings.

Wind engineering may be considered by structural engineers to be closely related to [[earthquake engineering]] and [[explosion protection]].

==History==
Wind Engineering as a separate discipline can be traced to the UK in the 1960s, when informal meetings were held at the [[National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)|National Physical Laboratory]], the Building Research Establishment and elsewhere.

==Wind loads on buildings==
The design of buildings must account for wind loads, and these are affected by wind shear. For engineering purposes, a power law wind speed profile may be defined as follows:<ref name=Crawley>{{cite book | last = Crawley | first = Stanley | title = Steel Buildings | publisher = Wiley | location = New York | year = 1993 | isbn = 0-471-84298-2 | pages = 272 }}</ref><ref name=Gupta>{{cite book | last = Gupta | first = Ajaya Kumar and Peter James Moss| title = Guidelines for Design of Low-Rise Buildings Subjected to Lateral Forces | publisher = CRC Press | location = Boca Raton | year = 1993 | isbn = 0-8493-8969-0 | pages = 49|url=http://www.crcpress.com/product/isbn/9780849389696}}</ref>

:<math>\ v_z = v_g \cdot \left( \frac {z} {z_g} \right)^ \frac {1} {\alpha}, 0 < z < z_g
</math>

where:

:<math>\ v_z</math> = speed of the wind at height <math>\ z</math>
:<math>\ v_g</math> = gradient wind at gradient height <math>\ z_g </math>
:<math>\ \alpha</math> = exponential coefficient
<br />
Typically, buildings are designed to resist a strong wind with a very long return period, such as 50 years or more. The design wind speed is determined from historical records using [[extreme value theory]] to predict future extreme wind speeds.

==Wind comfort==
The advent of high rise [[tower blocks]] led to concerns regarding the wind nuisance caused by these buildings to pedestrians in their vicinity.

A number of wind comfort and wind danger criteria were developed from 1971, based on different pedestrian activities such as:<ref>[http://sts.bwk.tue.nl/urbanphysics/pdf/2013_BAE_WD_BB_TvH_Preprint.pdf Pedestrian wind comfort around buildings: comparison of wind comfort criteria. Table 3]</ref>
* Sitting for a long period of time
* Sitting for a short period of time
* Strolling
* Walking fast
Other criteria classified a wind environment as completely unacceptable or dangerous.

Building geometries consisting of one and two rectangular buildings have a number of well-known effects:<ref>[http://sts.bwk.tue.nl/urbanphysics/pdf/2013_BAE_WD_BB_TvH_Preprint.pdf Pedestrian wind comfort around buildings: comparison of wind comfort criteria. Figure 6]</ref><ref>[http://www.hkisc.org/proceedings/2006421/6_Johnny_Yu%20Wind%20Effect%20on%20Pedestrians.pdf Wind Effects On Pedestrians. Figure 3]</ref>
* Corner streams, also known as corner jets, around the corners of buildings
* Through-flow, also known as a passage jet, in any passage through a building or small gap between two buildings due to pressure short-circuiting
* Vortex shedding in the wake of buildings

For more complex geometries, pedestrian wind comfort studies are required. These can use an appropriately scaled model in a boundary layer [[wind tunnel]], or more recently there has been increased use of [[Computational Fluid Dynamics]] (CFD) techniques.<ref>[http://www.aij.or.jp/jpn/publish/cfdguide/JWEIAguide.pdf AIJ guidelines for practical applications of CFD to pedestrian wind environment around buildings]</ref> The pedestrian level wind speeds for a given exceedance probability are calculated to allow for regional wind speeds statistics.<ref>[https://www.cmff.hu/oktatas/tantargy/NEPTUN/BMEGEATMW08/2010-2011-1/ea_lecture/blocken_pedestrianWindEnvironment.pdf Pedestrian Wind Environment Around Buildings. p112]</ref>

The vertical wind profile used in these studies varies according to the terrain in the vicinity of the buildings (which is may differ by wind direction), and is often grouped in categories such as:<ref>[https://law.resource.org/pub/nz/ibr/as-nzs.1170.2.2011.pdf AS/NZS 1170.2:2011 Structural Design Actions Part 2 - Wind actions. Section 4.2]</ref>
* Exposed open terrain with few or no obstructions and water surfaces at serviceability wind speeds.
* Water surfaces, open terrain, grassland with few, well-scattered obstructions having heights generally from 1.5 m to 10m.
* Terrain with numerous closely spaced obstructions 3 m to 5 m high, such as areas of suburban housing.
* Terrain with numerous large, high (10 m to 30 m high) and closely spaced obstructions, such as large city centres and well-developed industrial complexes.

==Wind turbines==


[[Wind turbine]]s are affected by wind shear. Vertical wind-speed profiles result in different wind speeds at the blades nearest to the ground level compared to those at the top of blade travel, and this in turn affects the turbine operation.<ref name=Heier>{{cite book | last = Heier | first = Siegfried | title = Grid Integration of Wind Energy Conversion Systems | publisher = John Wiley & Sons | location = Chichester | year = 2005 | isbn = 0-470-86899-6 | pages = 45}}</ref> The wind gradient can create a large bending moment in the shaft of a two bladed turbine when the blades are vertical.<ref>{{cite book | last = Harrison | first = Robert | title = Large Wind Turbines | publisher = John Wiley & Sons | location = Chichester | year = 2001 | isbn = 0-471-49456-9 | pages = 30}}</ref> The reduced wind gradient over water means shorter and less expensive wind turbine towers can be used in shallow seas.<ref name=Lubosny>{{cite book | last = Lubosny | first = Zbigniew | title = Wind Turbine Operation in Electric Power Systems: Advanced Modeling | publisher = Springer | location = Berlin | year = 2003 | isbn = 3-540-40340-X | pages = 17}}</ref>

For wind turbine engineering, wind speed variation with height is often approximated using a power law:<ref name=Heier/>

:<math>\ v_w(h) = v_{ref} \cdot \left( \frac {h} {h_{ref}} \right)^ a
</math>

where:

:<math>\ v_w(h)</math> = velocity of the wind at height <math> h</math> <nowiki>[m/s]</nowiki>
:<math>\ v_{ref}</math> = velocity of the wind at some reference height <math> h_{ref} </math> <nowiki>[m]</nowiki>
:<math>\ a</math> = Hellman exponent (aka power law exponent or shear exponent) (~= 1/7 in neutral flow, but can be >1)

==Significance==
The knowledge of '''wind engineering''' is used to analyze and design all [[high rise]] buildings, cable [[suspension bridge]]s and [[cable-stayed bridge]]s, electricity transmission towers and [[telecommunication tower]]s and all other types of towers and chimneys. The wind load is the dominant load in the analysis of many tall buildings. So '''wind engineering''' is essential for the analysis and design of tall buildings. Again, wind load is a dominant load in the analysis and design of all long-span [[cable bridge]]s.

==See also==
* [[Hurricane engineering]]
* [[Wind tunnel]] testing
* [[Vibration control]]
* [[John Twidell]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.iawe.org/ International Association for Wind Engineering]
* [http://www.aawe.org/ American Association of Wind Engineering]
* [http://www.ukwes.bham.ac.uk/ UK Wind Engineering Society]
* [http://www.wwindea.org/home/index.php World Wind Energy Association]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Wind Engineering}}
[[Category:Engineering disciplines]]
[[Category:Structural engineering]]
[[Category:Wind]]

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