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{{See also|Timeline of quantum mechanics|History of physics}}
[[File:10 Quantum Mechanics Masters.jpg|thumb|200px|10 influential figures in the history of quantum mechanics. Left to right:<br>
<div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">
[[Max Planck]], [[Albert Einstein]],<br>
[[Niels Bohr]], [[Louis de&nbsp;Broglie]],<br>
[[Max Born]], [[Paul Dirac]],<br>
[[Werner Heisenberg]], [[Wolfgang Pauli]],<br>
[[Erwin Schrödinger]], [[Richard Feynman]].</div>
]]
The '''history of [[quantum mechanics]]''' is a fundamental part of the [[History of physics#Birth of Modern Physics|history of modern physics]]. Quantum mechanics' history, as it interlaces with the history of [[quantum chemistry]], began essentially with a number of different scientific discoveries: the 1838 discovery of [[cathode rays]] by [[Michael Faraday]]; the 1859-1860 winter statement of the [[black body radiation]] problem by [[Gustav Kirchhoff]]; the 1877 suggestion by [[Ludwig Boltzmann]] that the [[energy state]]s of a physical system could be ''discrete''; the discovery of the [[photoelectric effect]] by [[Heinrich Hertz]] in 1887; and the 1900 quantum hypothesis by [[Max Planck]] that any energy-radiating atomic system can theoretically be divided into a number of discrete "energy elements" ''ε'' ([[epsilon]]) such that each of these energy elements is proportional to the [[frequency]] ''ν'' with which each of them individually radiate [[energy]], as defined by the following formula:
:<math> \epsilon = h \nu \, </math>
where ''h'' is a numerical value called [[Planck's constant]].
 
Then, [[Albert Einstein]] in 1905, in order to explain the [[photoelectric effect]] previously reported by [[Heinrich Hertz]] in 1887, postulated consistently with Max Planck's quantum hypothesis that [[light]] itself is made of individual quantum particles, which in 1926 came to be called [[photons]] by Gilbert N. Lewis. The photoelectric effect was observed upon shining light of particular wavelengths on certain materials, such as metals, which caused electrons to be ejected from those materials only if the light quantum energy was greater than the [[work function]] of the metal's surface.
 
The phrase "quantum mechanics" was coined (in German, "quantenmechanik") by the group of physicists including [[Max Born]], [[Werner Heisenberg]], and [[Wolfgang Pauli]], at the [[University of Göttingen]] in the early 1920s, and was first used in Born's 1924 paper ''"Zur Quantenmechanik"''.<ref>Max Born, ''My Life: Recollections of a Nobel Laureate'', Taylor & Francis, London, 1978. ("We became more and more convinced that a radical change of the foundations of physics was necessary, i.e., a new kind of  mechanics for which we used the term quantum mechanics.  This word appears for the first time in physical literature in a paper of mine...")</ref>  In the years to follow, this theoretical basis slowly began to be applied to [[chemical structure]], reactivity, and bonding.
 
==Overview==
[[File:Boltzmanns-molecule.jpg|204px|thumb|left|[[Ludwig Boltzmann]]’s '''diagram of the I<sub>2</sub> molecule''' proposed in 1898 showing the atomic "sensitive region" (α, β) of overlap.]]
[[Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann]] suggested in 1877 that the energy levels of a physical system, such as a molecule, could be discrete. He was a founder of the [[Austrian Mathematical Society]], together with the mathematicians [[Gustav von Escherich]] and [[Emil Müller (mathematician)|Emil Müller]]. Boltzmann's rationale for the presence of discrete energy levels in molecules such as those of iodine gas had its origins in his [[statistical thermodynamics]] and [[statistical mechanics]] theories and was backed up by [[mathematical]] arguments, as it will also be the case twenty years later with the first [[quantum mechanics|quantum theory]] put forward by [[Max Planck]].
 
In 1900, the German physicist Max Planck reluctantly introduced the idea that energy is ''quantized'' in order to derive a formula for the observed frequency dependence of the energy emitted by a [[black body]], called [[Planck's Law]], that included a [[Boltzmann distribution]] (applicable in the classical limit). Planck's law<ref>M. Planck (1914). ''The theory of heat radiation'', second edition, translated by M. Masius, Blakiston's Son & Co, Philadelphia, pages 22, 26, 42, 43.</ref> can be stated as follows: <math>I(\nu,T) =\frac{ 2 h\nu^{3}}{c^2}\frac{1}{ e^{\frac{h\nu}{kT}}-1},</math> where:
 
:''I''(''ν'',''T'') is the [[energy]] per unit [[time]] (or the [[power (physics)|power]]) radiated per unit area of emitting surface in the [[surface normal|normal]] direction per unit [[solid angle]] per unit [[frequency]] by a black body at temperature ''T'';
:''h'' is the [[Planck constant]];
:''c'' is the [[speed of light]] in a vacuum;
:''k'' is the [[Boltzmann constant]];
:''ν'' is the [[frequency]] of the electromagnetic radiation; and
:''T'' is the [[temperature]] of the body in degrees [[Kelvin]].
 
The earlier Wien approximation may be derived from Planck's law by assuming <math>h\nu \gg kT</math>.
 
Moreover, the application of Planck's quantum theory to the electron allowed [[Ștefan Procopiu]] in 1911—1913, and subsequently [[Niels Bohr]] in 1913, to calculate the [[magnetic moment]] of the electron, which was later called the "[[Bohr magneton|magneton]]"; similar quantum computations, but with numerically quite different values, were subsequently made possible for both the magnetic moments of the [[proton]] and the [[neutron]] that are three orders of magnitude smaller than that of the electron.
 
{| cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" align="right" style="border:1px solid black; margin-left:1em"
|colspan=2 style="background-color:#ffdead;" align="center"|<big>'''Photoelectric effect'''</big>
|-
|colspan=2| [[File:Photoelectric effect.svg|200px|thumb|center|The emission of electrons from a metal plate caused by light quanta (photons) with energy greater than the work function of the metal.]]
|-
|colspan=2 align=left|'''The [[photoelectric effect]] reported by [[Heinrich Hertz]] in 1887''',
|-
|'''and explained by [[Albert Einstein]] in 1905'''.
|-
| Low-energy phenomena:  [[Photoelectric effect]]
|-
| Mid-energy phenomena:  [[Compton scattering]]
|-
| High-energy phenomena:  [[Pair production]]
|}
 
In 1905, [[Einstein]] explained the [[photoelectric effect]] by postulating that light, or more generally all [[electromagnetic radiation]], can be divided into a finite number of "energy quanta" that are localized points in space. From the introduction section of his March 1905 quantum paper, "On a heuristic viewpoint concerning the emission and transformation of light", Einstein states:
 
{{quote| "According to the assumption to be contemplated here, when a light ray is spreading from a point, the energy is not distributed continuously over ever-increasing spaces, but consists of a finite number of 'energy quanta' that are localized in points in space, move without dividing, and can be absorbed or generated only as a whole."}}
 
This statement has been called the most revolutionary sentence written by a physicist of the twentieth century.<ref>{{Citation | last = Folsing | first = Albrecht  | title = Albert Einstein: A Biography | publisher = trans. [[Ewald Osers]], Viking | year = 1997}}</ref> These ''energy quanta'' later came to be called "[[photon]]s", a term introduced by [[Gilbert N. Lewis]] in 1926. The idea that each photon had to consist of energy in terms of [[quantum|quanta]] was a remarkable achievement; it effectively solved the problem of [[ultraviolet catastrophe|black body radiation attaining infinite energy]], which occurred in theory if light were to be explained only in terms of waves. In 1913, Bohr explained the [[spectral line]]s of the [[hydrogen atom]], again by using quantization, in his paper of July 1913 ''On the Constitution of Atoms and Molecules''.
 
These theories, though successful, were strictly [[phenomenology (science)|phenomenological]]: during this time, there was no rigorous justification for [[Quantization (physics)|quantization]], aside, perhaps, from [[Henri Poincaré]]'s discussion of Planck's theory in his 1912 paper ''Sur la théorie des quanta''.<ref name=McCormmach>
{{Citation
  | last =McCormmach
  | first =Russell
  | title = Henri Poincaré and the Quantum Theory
  | journal = Isis
  | volume = 58
  | issue = 1
  | pages = 37–55
  | date = Spring 1967
  | doi =10.1086/350182
}}</ref><ref name=Irons>
{{Citation
  | last =Irons
  | first =F. E.
  | title = Poincaré's 1911–12 proof of quantum discontinuity interpreted as applying to atoms
  | journal =  American Journal of Physics
  | volume = 69
  | issue = 8
  | pages = 879–884
  | date = August 2001
  | doi =10.1119/1.1356056
|bibcode = 2001AmJPh..69..879I }}</ref> They are collectively known as the ''old quantum theory''.
 
The phrase "quantum physics" was first used in Johnston's ''Planck's Universe in Light of Modern Physics'' (1931).
 
[[File:Black body.svg|256px|thumb|right|With decreasing temperature, the peak of the '''blackbody radiation''' curve shifts to longer wavelengths and also has lower intensities. The blackbody radiation curves (1862) at left are also compared with the early, classical limit model of [[John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh|Rayleigh]] and [[Jeans]] (1900) shown at right. The short wavelength side of the curves was already approximated in 1896 by the [[Wien approximation|Wien distribution law]].]]
[[File:Bohr model 3.jpg|248px|thumb|left|[[Niels Bohr]]'s 1913 quantum model of the atom, which incorporated an explanation of [[Johannes Rydberg]]'s 1888 [[Rydberg formula|formula]], [[Max Planck]]'s 1900 quantum hypothesis, i.e. that atomic energy radiators have discrete energy values (''ε = hν''), [[J. J. Thomson|J.&nbsp;J.&nbsp;Thomson]]'s 1904 [[plum pudding model]], [[Albert Einstein]]'s 1905 [[light quanta]] postulate, and [[Ernest Rutherford]]'s 1907 discovery of the [[atomic nucleus]].  Note that the electron does not travel along the black line when emitting a photon. It jumps, disappearing from the outer orbit and appearing in the inner one and cannot exist in the space between orbits 2 and 3.]]
In 1924, the French physicist [[Louis-Victor de Broglie|Louis de Broglie]] put forward his theory of matter waves by stating that particles can exhibit wave characteristics and vice versa. This theory was for a single particle and derived from [[special relativity|special relativity theory]]. Building on de Broglie's approach, modern quantum mechanics was born in 1925, when the German physicists [[Werner Heisenberg]], [[Max Born]], and [[Pascual Jordan]]<ref name=Edwards79>David Edwards,''The Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics'', Synthese, Volume 42, Number 1/September, 1979, pp.&nbsp;1–70.</ref><ref name=Edwards81>D. Edwards, ''The Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Field Theory: Fermions, Gauge Fields, and Super-symmetry, Part I: Lattice Field Theories'', International J. of Theor. Phys., Vol. 20, No. 7 (1981).</ref> developed [[matrix mechanics]] and the Austrian physicist [[Erwin Schrödinger]] invented [[Schrödinger equation|wave mechanics]] and the non-relativistic Schrödinger equation as an approximation to the generalised case of de Broglie's theory.<ref>
{{Citation
  | last = Hanle
  | first = P.A.
  | title = Erwin Schrodinger's Reaction to Louis de Broglie's Thesis on the Quantum Theory.
  | journal = Isis
  | volume = 68
  | issue = 4
  | pages = 606–609
  | date = December 1977
  | doi = 10.1086/351880
}}</ref> Schrödinger subsequently showed that the two approaches were equivalent.
 
Heisenberg formulated his [[uncertainty principle]] in 1927, and the [[Copenhagen interpretation]] started to take shape at about the same time. Starting around 1927, [[Paul Dirac]] began the process of unifying quantum mechanics with [[special relativity]] by proposing the [[Dirac equation]] for the [[electron]]. The [[Dirac equation]] achieves the relativistic description of the wavefunction of an electron that Schrödinger failed to obtain. It predicts electron spin and led Dirac to predict the existence of the [[positron]]. He also pioneered the use of operator theory, including the influential [[bra-ket notation]], as described in his famous 1930 textbook. During the same period, Hungarian polymath [[John von Neumann]] formulated the rigorous mathematical basis for quantum mechanics as the theory of linear operators on Hilbert spaces, as described in his likewise famous 1932 textbook. These, like many other works from the founding period, still stand, and remain widely used.
 
The field of [[quantum chemistry]] was pioneered by physicists [[Walter Heitler]] and [[Fritz London]], who published a study of the [[covalent bond]] of the [[hydrogen molecule]] in 1927. Quantum chemistry was subsequently developed by a large number of workers, including the American theoretical chemist [[Linus Pauling]] at [[Caltech]], and [[John C. Slater]] into various theories such as Molecular Orbital Theory or Valence Theory.
 
Beginning in 1927, researchers made attempts at applying quantum mechanics to fields instead of single particles, resulting in [[Quantum field theory|quantum field theories]]. Early workers in this area include [[Paul Dirac|P.A.M. Dirac]], [[Wolfgang Pauli|W. Pauli]], [[Victor Weisskopf|V. Weisskopf]], and [[Pascual Jordan|P. Jordan]]. This area of research culminated in the formulation of [[quantum electrodynamics]] by [[Richard Feynman|R.P. Feynman]], [[Freeman Dyson|F. Dyson]], [[Julian Schwinger|J. Schwinger]], and [[Sin-Itiro Tomonaga|S.I. Tomonaga]] during the 1940s. Quantum electrodynamics describes a quantum theory of [[electron]]s, [[positron]]s, and the [[electromagnetic field]], and served as a model for subsequent [[Quantum field theory|Quantum Field theories]].<ref name=Edwards79 /><ref name=Edwards81 /><ref>S. Auyang, ''How is Quantum Field Theory Possible?'', Oxford University Press, 1995.</ref>
 
[[File:Feynmann Diagram Gluon Radiation.svg|264px|thumb|right|Feynman diagram of '''[[gluon]] [[radiation]]''' in [[Quantum Chromodynamics]]]]
 
The theory of [[Quantum Chromodynamics]] was formulated beginning in the early 1960s. The theory as we know it today was formulated by [[H. David Politzer|Politzer]], [[David J. Gross|Gross]] and [[Frank Wilczek|Wilczek]] in 1975.
 
Building on pioneering work by [[Julian Schwinger|Schwinger]], [[Peter Higgs|Higgs]] and [[Jeffrey Goldstone|Goldstone]], the physicists [[Sheldon Lee Glashow|Glashow]], [[Steven Weinberg|Weinberg]] and [[Abdus Salam|Salam]] independently showed how the weak nuclear force and [[quantum electrodynamics]] could be merged into a single [[electroweak force]], for which they received the 1979 [[Nobel Prize in Physics]].
 
==Founding experiments==
*[[Thomas Young (scientist)|Thomas Young]]'s [[double-slit experiment]] demonstrating the wave nature of light. (c1805)
*[[Henri Becquerel]] discovers [[radioactivity]]. (1896)
*[[J. J. Thomson]]'s cathode ray tube experiments (discovers the [[electron]] and its negative charge). (1897)
*The study of [[black body radiation]] between 1850 and 1900, which could not be explained without quantum concepts.
*The [[photoelectric effect]]: [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]] explained this in 1905 (and later received a Nobel prize for it) using the concept of photons, particles of light with quantized energy.
*[[Robert Millikan]]'s [[oil-drop experiment]], which showed that [[electric charge]] occurs as ''[[quantum|quanta]]'' (whole units). (1909)
*[[Ernest Rutherford]]'s [[Geiger-Marsden experiment|gold foil experiment]] disproved the plum pudding model of the [[atom]] which suggested that the mass and positive charge of the atom are almost uniformly distributed. (1911)
*[[Otto Stern]] and [[Walther Gerlach]] conduct the [[Stern-Gerlach experiment]], which demonstrates the quantized nature of particle [[Spin (physics)|spin]]. (1920)
*[[Clinton Davisson]] and [[Lester Germer]] demonstrate the wave nature of the [[electron]]<ref>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quantum/davger2.html The Davisson-Germer experiment, which demonstrates the wave nature of the electron]</ref> in the [[Electron diffraction]] experiment. (1927)
*[[Clyde L. Cowan]] and [[Frederick Reines]] confirm the existence of the [[neutrino]] in the [[neutrino experiment]]. (1955)
*[[Clauss Jönsson]]`s [[double-slit experiment]] with electrons. (1961)
*The [[Quantum Hall effect]], discovered in 1980 by [[Klaus von Klitzing]]. The quantized version of the [[Hall effect]] has allowed for the definition of a new practical standard for [[electrical resistance]] and for an extremely precise independent determination of the [[fine structure constant]].
*The [[Bell test experiments|experimental verification]] of [[quantum entanglement]] by [[Alain Aspect]]. (1982)
*The [[Mach-Zehnder Interferometer]] experiment conducted by Paul Kwiat, Harold Wienfurter, Thomas Herzog, [[Anton Zeilinger]], and Mark Kasevich, providing [[Elitzur-Vaidman bomb-testing problem|experimental verification of the Elitzur-Vadiman bomb tester]], proving [[Interaction-free measurement]] is possible. (1994)
 
==See also==
{{Portal|History of science|Nuclear technology|Physics}}
*[[Golden age of physics]]
*[[History of quantum field theory]]
*[[History of chemistry]]
*[[History of the molecule]]
*[[History of thermodynamics]]
*[[Timeline of atomic and subatomic physics]]
 
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
 
==Further reading==
* {{Citation|first=Guido|last=Bacciagaluppi|coauthors=[[Antony Valentini|Valentini, Antony]]|title=Quantum theory at the crossroads: reconsidering the 1927 Solvay conference|arxiv=quant-ph/0609184|oclc=227191829|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2009|location=Cambridge, UK|isbn=978-0-521-81421-8|bibcode = 2006quant.ph..9184B|pages=9184|last2=Valentini }}
* {{Citation | author=Bernstein, Jeremy|title=Quantum Leaps| publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press | location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|year=2009|isbn=978-0-674-03541-6|url=http://books.google.com/?id=j0Me3brYOL0C&printsec=frontcover}}
* {{Citation| author=[[Max Jammer|Jammer, Max]] | title=The conceptual development of quantum mechanics | publisher=McGraw-Hill | location=New York|year=1966|oclc=534562}}
* {{Citation| author=[[Max Jammer|Jammer, Max]] | title=The philosophy of quantum mechanics: The interpretations of quantum mechanics in historical perspective | publisher=Wiley | location=New York|year=1974|oclc=969760|isbn=0-471-43958-4}}
* F. Bayen, M. Flato, C. Fronsdal, A. Lichnerowicz and D. Sternheimer, Deformation theory and quantization I,and II, ''Ann. Phys. (N.Y.)'', '''111''' (1978) pp.&nbsp;61–110, 111-151.
* D. Cohen, ''An Introduction to Hilbert Space and Quantum Logic'', Springer-Verlag, 1989. This is a thorough and well-illustrated introduction.
* {{Citation | last1 = Finkelstein | first1 = D. | year = | title = Matter, Space and Logic | url = | journal = Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science | volume = V | issue = | page = 1969 | postscript = . }}
* A. Gleason. Measures on the Closed Subspaces of a Hilbert Space, ''Journal of Mathematics and Mechanics'', 1957.
* R. Kadison. Isometries of Operator Algebras, ''Annals of Mathematics'', Vol. 54, pp.&nbsp;325–338, 1951
* G. Ludwig. ''Foundations of Quantum Mechanics'', Springer-Verlag, 1983.
* G. Mackey. ''Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics'', W. A. Benjamin, 1963 (paperback reprint by Dover 2004).
* R. Omnès. ''Understanding Quantum Mechanics'', Princeton University Press, 1999. (Discusses logical and philosophical issues of quantum mechanics, with careful attention to the history of the subject).
* N. Papanikolaou. ''Reasoning Formally About Quantum Systems: An Overview,'' ACM SIGACT News, 36(3), pp.&nbsp;51–66, 2005.
* C. Piron. ''Foundations of Quantum Physics'',  W. A. Benjamin, 1976.
* Hermann Weyl. ''The Theory of Groups and Quantum Mechanics'', Dover Publications, 1950.
* A. Whitaker. ''The New Quantum Age: From Bell's Theorem to Quantum Computation and Teleportation'', Oxford University Press, 2011, ISBN 978-0-19-958913-5
* Stephen Hawking. ''The Dreams that Stuff is Made of'', Running Press, 2011, ISBN  978-0-76-243434-3
 
==External links==
*[http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/The_Quantum_age_begins.html A History of Quantum Mechanics]
*[http://www.oberlin.edu/physics/dstyer/StrangeQM/history.html A Brief History of Quantum Mechanics]
*[http://quantum-history.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/ Homepage of the Quantum History Project]
 
{{DEFAULTSORT:Quantum mechanics}}
[[Category:History of chemistry]]
[[Category:History of physics]]
 
[[zh:物理学史#量子理论]]

Latest revision as of 23:57, 31 January 2014

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10 influential figures in the history of quantum mechanics. Left to right:

The history of quantum mechanics is a fundamental part of the history of modern physics. Quantum mechanics' history, as it interlaces with the history of quantum chemistry, began essentially with a number of different scientific discoveries: the 1838 discovery of cathode rays by Michael Faraday; the 1859-1860 winter statement of the black body radiation problem by Gustav Kirchhoff; the 1877 suggestion by Ludwig Boltzmann that the energy states of a physical system could be discrete; the discovery of the photoelectric effect by Heinrich Hertz in 1887; and the 1900 quantum hypothesis by Max Planck that any energy-radiating atomic system can theoretically be divided into a number of discrete "energy elements" ε (epsilon) such that each of these energy elements is proportional to the frequency ν with which each of them individually radiate energy, as defined by the following formula:

ϵ=hν

where h is a numerical value called Planck's constant.

Then, Albert Einstein in 1905, in order to explain the photoelectric effect previously reported by Heinrich Hertz in 1887, postulated consistently with Max Planck's quantum hypothesis that light itself is made of individual quantum particles, which in 1926 came to be called photons by Gilbert N. Lewis. The photoelectric effect was observed upon shining light of particular wavelengths on certain materials, such as metals, which caused electrons to be ejected from those materials only if the light quantum energy was greater than the work function of the metal's surface.

The phrase "quantum mechanics" was coined (in German, "quantenmechanik") by the group of physicists including Max Born, Werner Heisenberg, and Wolfgang Pauli, at the University of Göttingen in the early 1920s, and was first used in Born's 1924 paper "Zur Quantenmechanik".[1] In the years to follow, this theoretical basis slowly began to be applied to chemical structure, reactivity, and bonding.

Overview

Ludwig Boltzmann’s diagram of the I2 molecule proposed in 1898 showing the atomic "sensitive region" (α, β) of overlap.

Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann suggested in 1877 that the energy levels of a physical system, such as a molecule, could be discrete. He was a founder of the Austrian Mathematical Society, together with the mathematicians Gustav von Escherich and Emil Müller. Boltzmann's rationale for the presence of discrete energy levels in molecules such as those of iodine gas had its origins in his statistical thermodynamics and statistical mechanics theories and was backed up by mathematical arguments, as it will also be the case twenty years later with the first quantum theory put forward by Max Planck.

In 1900, the German physicist Max Planck reluctantly introduced the idea that energy is quantized in order to derive a formula for the observed frequency dependence of the energy emitted by a black body, called Planck's Law, that included a Boltzmann distribution (applicable in the classical limit). Planck's law[2] can be stated as follows: I(ν,T)=2hν3c21ehνkT1, where:

I(ν,T) is the energy per unit time (or the power) radiated per unit area of emitting surface in the normal direction per unit solid angle per unit frequency by a black body at temperature T;
h is the Planck constant;
c is the speed of light in a vacuum;
k is the Boltzmann constant;
ν is the frequency of the electromagnetic radiation; and
T is the temperature of the body in degrees Kelvin.

The earlier Wien approximation may be derived from Planck's law by assuming hνkT.

Moreover, the application of Planck's quantum theory to the electron allowed Ștefan Procopiu in 1911—1913, and subsequently Niels Bohr in 1913, to calculate the magnetic moment of the electron, which was later called the "magneton"; similar quantum computations, but with numerically quite different values, were subsequently made possible for both the magnetic moments of the proton and the neutron that are three orders of magnitude smaller than that of the electron.

Photoelectric effect
The emission of electrons from a metal plate caused by light quanta (photons) with energy greater than the work function of the metal.
The photoelectric effect reported by Heinrich Hertz in 1887,
and explained by Albert Einstein in 1905.
Low-energy phenomena: Photoelectric effect
Mid-energy phenomena: Compton scattering
High-energy phenomena: Pair production

In 1905, Einstein explained the photoelectric effect by postulating that light, or more generally all electromagnetic radiation, can be divided into a finite number of "energy quanta" that are localized points in space. From the introduction section of his March 1905 quantum paper, "On a heuristic viewpoint concerning the emission and transformation of light", Einstein states:

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This statement has been called the most revolutionary sentence written by a physicist of the twentieth century.[3] These energy quanta later came to be called "photons", a term introduced by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1926. The idea that each photon had to consist of energy in terms of quanta was a remarkable achievement; it effectively solved the problem of black body radiation attaining infinite energy, which occurred in theory if light were to be explained only in terms of waves. In 1913, Bohr explained the spectral lines of the hydrogen atom, again by using quantization, in his paper of July 1913 On the Constitution of Atoms and Molecules.

These theories, though successful, were strictly phenomenological: during this time, there was no rigorous justification for quantization, aside, perhaps, from Henri Poincaré's discussion of Planck's theory in his 1912 paper Sur la théorie des quanta.[4][5] They are collectively known as the old quantum theory.

The phrase "quantum physics" was first used in Johnston's Planck's Universe in Light of Modern Physics (1931).

With decreasing temperature, the peak of the blackbody radiation curve shifts to longer wavelengths and also has lower intensities. The blackbody radiation curves (1862) at left are also compared with the early, classical limit model of Rayleigh and Jeans (1900) shown at right. The short wavelength side of the curves was already approximated in 1896 by the Wien distribution law.
Niels Bohr's 1913 quantum model of the atom, which incorporated an explanation of Johannes Rydberg's 1888 formula, Max Planck's 1900 quantum hypothesis, i.e. that atomic energy radiators have discrete energy values (ε = hν), J. J. Thomson's 1904 plum pudding model, Albert Einstein's 1905 light quanta postulate, and Ernest Rutherford's 1907 discovery of the atomic nucleus. Note that the electron does not travel along the black line when emitting a photon. It jumps, disappearing from the outer orbit and appearing in the inner one and cannot exist in the space between orbits 2 and 3.

In 1924, the French physicist Louis de Broglie put forward his theory of matter waves by stating that particles can exhibit wave characteristics and vice versa. This theory was for a single particle and derived from special relativity theory. Building on de Broglie's approach, modern quantum mechanics was born in 1925, when the German physicists Werner Heisenberg, Max Born, and Pascual Jordan[6][7] developed matrix mechanics and the Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger invented wave mechanics and the non-relativistic Schrödinger equation as an approximation to the generalised case of de Broglie's theory.[8] Schrödinger subsequently showed that the two approaches were equivalent.

Heisenberg formulated his uncertainty principle in 1927, and the Copenhagen interpretation started to take shape at about the same time. Starting around 1927, Paul Dirac began the process of unifying quantum mechanics with special relativity by proposing the Dirac equation for the electron. The Dirac equation achieves the relativistic description of the wavefunction of an electron that Schrödinger failed to obtain. It predicts electron spin and led Dirac to predict the existence of the positron. He also pioneered the use of operator theory, including the influential bra-ket notation, as described in his famous 1930 textbook. During the same period, Hungarian polymath John von Neumann formulated the rigorous mathematical basis for quantum mechanics as the theory of linear operators on Hilbert spaces, as described in his likewise famous 1932 textbook. These, like many other works from the founding period, still stand, and remain widely used.

The field of quantum chemistry was pioneered by physicists Walter Heitler and Fritz London, who published a study of the covalent bond of the hydrogen molecule in 1927. Quantum chemistry was subsequently developed by a large number of workers, including the American theoretical chemist Linus Pauling at Caltech, and John C. Slater into various theories such as Molecular Orbital Theory or Valence Theory.

Beginning in 1927, researchers made attempts at applying quantum mechanics to fields instead of single particles, resulting in quantum field theories. Early workers in this area include P.A.M. Dirac, W. Pauli, V. Weisskopf, and P. Jordan. This area of research culminated in the formulation of quantum electrodynamics by R.P. Feynman, F. Dyson, J. Schwinger, and S.I. Tomonaga during the 1940s. Quantum electrodynamics describes a quantum theory of electrons, positrons, and the electromagnetic field, and served as a model for subsequent Quantum Field theories.[6][7][9]

Feynman diagram of gluon radiation in Quantum Chromodynamics

The theory of Quantum Chromodynamics was formulated beginning in the early 1960s. The theory as we know it today was formulated by Politzer, Gross and Wilczek in 1975.

Building on pioneering work by Schwinger, Higgs and Goldstone, the physicists Glashow, Weinberg and Salam independently showed how the weak nuclear force and quantum electrodynamics could be merged into a single electroweak force, for which they received the 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics.

Founding experiments

See also

Sportspersons Hyslop from Nicolet, usually spends time with pastimes for example martial arts, property developers condominium in singapore singapore and hot rods. Maintains a trip site and has lots to write about after touring Gulf of Porto: Calanche of Piana.

References

43 year old Petroleum Engineer Harry from Deep River, usually spends time with hobbies and interests like renting movies, property developers in singapore new condominium and vehicle racing. Constantly enjoys going to destinations like Camino Real de Tierra Adentro.

Further reading

  • Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

    Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.

    In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.

    Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region

    Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.

    15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

    To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010
  • Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

    Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.

    In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.

    Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region

    Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.

    15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

    To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010
  • Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

    Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.

    In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.

    Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region

    Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.

    15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

    To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010
  • Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

    Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.

    In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.

    Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region

    Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.

    15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

    To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010
  • F. Bayen, M. Flato, C. Fronsdal, A. Lichnerowicz and D. Sternheimer, Deformation theory and quantization I,and II, Ann. Phys. (N.Y.), 111 (1978) pp. 61–110, 111-151.
  • D. Cohen, An Introduction to Hilbert Space and Quantum Logic, Springer-Verlag, 1989. This is a thorough and well-illustrated introduction.
  • Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

    Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.

    In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.

    Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region

    Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.

    15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

    To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010
  • A. Gleason. Measures on the Closed Subspaces of a Hilbert Space, Journal of Mathematics and Mechanics, 1957.
  • R. Kadison. Isometries of Operator Algebras, Annals of Mathematics, Vol. 54, pp. 325–338, 1951
  • G. Ludwig. Foundations of Quantum Mechanics, Springer-Verlag, 1983.
  • G. Mackey. Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics, W. A. Benjamin, 1963 (paperback reprint by Dover 2004).
  • R. Omnès. Understanding Quantum Mechanics, Princeton University Press, 1999. (Discusses logical and philosophical issues of quantum mechanics, with careful attention to the history of the subject).
  • N. Papanikolaou. Reasoning Formally About Quantum Systems: An Overview, ACM SIGACT News, 36(3), pp. 51–66, 2005.
  • C. Piron. Foundations of Quantum Physics, W. A. Benjamin, 1976.
  • Hermann Weyl. The Theory of Groups and Quantum Mechanics, Dover Publications, 1950.
  • A. Whitaker. The New Quantum Age: From Bell's Theorem to Quantum Computation and Teleportation, Oxford University Press, 2011, ISBN 978-0-19-958913-5
  • Stephen Hawking. The Dreams that Stuff is Made of, Running Press, 2011, ISBN 978-0-76-243434-3

External links

zh:物理学史#量子理论

  1. Max Born, My Life: Recollections of a Nobel Laureate, Taylor & Francis, London, 1978. ("We became more and more convinced that a radical change of the foundations of physics was necessary, i.e., a new kind of mechanics for which we used the term quantum mechanics. This word appears for the first time in physical literature in a paper of mine...")
  2. M. Planck (1914). The theory of heat radiation, second edition, translated by M. Masius, Blakiston's Son & Co, Philadelphia, pages 22, 26, 42, 43.
  3. Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

    Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.

    In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.

    Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region

    Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.

    15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

    To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010
  4. Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

    Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.

    In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.

    Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region

    Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.

    15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

    To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010
  5. Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

    Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.

    In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.

    Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region

    Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.

    15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

    To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010
  6. 6.0 6.1 David Edwards,The Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics, Synthese, Volume 42, Number 1/September, 1979, pp. 1–70.
  7. 7.0 7.1 D. Edwards, The Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Field Theory: Fermions, Gauge Fields, and Super-symmetry, Part I: Lattice Field Theories, International J. of Theor. Phys., Vol. 20, No. 7 (1981).
  8. Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

    Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.

    In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.

    Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region

    Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.

    15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

    To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010
  9. S. Auyang, How is Quantum Field Theory Possible?, Oxford University Press, 1995.
  10. The Davisson-Germer experiment, which demonstrates the wave nature of the electron