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| {{distinguish|Ellipse}}
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| {{Punctuation marks|…<!-- U+2026 is the most proper way of representing ellipsis, not three periods (they only imitate a proper typographical ligature, which should be used here as a completely accurate reference); see Talk:Ellipsis#The_huge_symbol_in_the_table -->|Ellipsis
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| |variant1=…|caption1=Precomposed ellipsis<!--
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| -->|variant2=. . .|caption2=Spaced 3 periods<!--
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| -->|variant3=⋯|caption3=Mid-line ellipsis}}
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| {{wiktionary}}
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| '''Ellipsis''' (plural '''ellipses'''; from the {{lang-grc|ἔλλειψις}}, ''élleipsis'', "omission" or "[[wikt:ellipsis|falling short]]") is a series of dots that usually indicates an intentional omission of a word, sentence, or whole section from a text without altering its original meaning.<ref>[http://www.thefreedictionary.com/ellipsis thefreedictionary.com]</ref> Depending on their context and placement in a sentence, ellipses can also indicate an unfinished thought, a slight pause, and nervous or awkward silence. [[Aposiopesis]] is the use of an ellipsis to trail off into silence—for example: "But I thought he was {{j|. . ."}} When placed at the beginning or end of a sentence, the ellipsis can also inspire a feeling of melancholy or longing.
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| The most common form of an ellipsis is a row of three periods or full stops ('''. . .''') or a precomposed triple-dot glyph ('''…'''). The usage of the [[em dash]] (—) can overlap the usage of the ellipsis, especially in dialogue. Style guides often have their own rules governing the use of ellipses. For example, ''[[the Chicago Manual of Style]]'' recommends that an ellipsis be formed by typing three periods, each with a space on both sides.
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| The triple-dot punctuation mark is also called a '''suspension point''', '''points of ellipsis''', '''periods of ellipsis''', or [[colloquialism|colloquially]], "'''dot-dot-dot'''".<ref>as coined by [[Virginia Woolf]] in her short story ''The Mark on The Wall'' -- or so do notes in Penguin Books' edition (''Virginia Woolf: Selected Short Stories'') suggest.</ref>
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| ==In writing==
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| It is used to build tension or show that the sentence has been left unfinished or unstarted.
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| In the 19th and early 20th centuries, an ellipsis was often used when a writer intentionally omitted a specific proper noun, such as a location: "Jan was born on . . . Street in Warsaw."
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| As commonly used, this juxtaposition of characters is referred to as "dots of ellipsis" in the English language.{{citation needed|date=November 2012}}
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| Occasionally, it would be used in pulp fiction and other works of early 20th-century fiction to denote expletives that would otherwise have been censored.<ref>Raymond Chandler, Frank MacShane. ''Raymond Chandler: Stories and Early Novels''. First Edition. [[New York]]: [[Library of America]]. 1995. ''Note on the Texts''.</ref>
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| An ellipsis may also imply an unstated alternative indicated by context. For example, when [[Count Dracula]] says "I never drink . . . wine"; the implication is that he does drink something else.
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| In reported speech, the ellipsis is sometimes used to represent an intentional silence, perhaps indicating irritation, dismay, shock or disgust. {{citation needed|date=July 2011}}
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| In poetry, this is used to highlight sarcasm or make the reader think about the last points in the poem.
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| In news reporting, often associated with [[brackets]], it is used to indicate that a quotation has been condensed for space, brevity or relevance.
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| [[Herb Caen]], Pulitzer-prize-winning columnist for the San Francisco Chronicle, became famous for his "Three-dot journalism".
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| ==In different languages==
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| ===In English===
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| {{globalize|section|date=February 2011}}
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| ''[[The Chicago Manual of Style]]'' suggests the use of an ellipsis for any omitted word, phrase, line, or paragraph from within but not at the end of a quoted passage. There are two commonly used methods of using ellipses: one uses three dots for any omission, while the second one makes a distinction between omissions within a sentence (using three dots: . . .) and omissions between sentences (using a period and a space followed by three dots: . ...). An ellipsis at the end of a sentence with a sentence following should be preceded by a period (for a total of four dots).
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| The [[Modern Language Association]] (MLA), however, used to indicate that an ellipsis must include spaces before and after each dot in all uses. If an ellipsis is meant to represent an omission, [[square bracket]]s must surround the ellipsis to make it clear that there was no pause in the original quote: [ . . . ]. Currently, the MLA has removed the requirement of brackets in its style handbooks. However, some maintain that the use of brackets is still correct because it clears confusion.<ref>Fowler, H. Ramsey, Jane E. Aaron, Murray McArthur. ''The Little, Brown Handbook''. Fourth Canadian Edition. [[Toronto]]: [[Longman|Pearson Longman]]. 2005. p. 440.</ref>
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| The [[Modern Language Association|MLA]] now indicates that a three-dot, spaced ellipsis ( … ) should be used for removing material from within one sentence within a quote. When crossing sentences (when the omitted text contains a period, so that omitting the end of a sentence counts), a four-dot, spaced (except for before the first dot) ellipsis (. . . . ) should be used. When ellipsis points are used in the original text, ellipsis points that are not in the original text should be distinguished by enclosing them in square brackets (e.g. "text […] text").<ref>http://www.naropa.edu/nwc/documents/citationcomparisonsp11.pdf {{Dead link |date=January 2013}}</ref>
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| According to the Associated Press, the ellipsis should be used to condense quotations. It is less commonly used to indicate a pause in speech or an unfinished thought or to separate items in material such as show business gossip. The stylebook indicates that if the shortened sentence before the mark can stand as a sentence, it should do so, with an ellipsis placed after the period or other ending punctuation. When material is omitted at the end of a paragraph and also immediately following it, an ellipsis goes both at the end of that paragraph and in front of the beginning of the next, according to this style.<ref>Godlstein, Norm, editor. "Associated Press Stylebook and Briefing on Media Law". 2005. pp.328–329.</ref>
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| According to Robert Bringhurst's ''[[Elements of Typographic Style]]'', the details of typesetting ellipsis depend on the character and size of the font being set and the typographer's preference. Bringhurst writes that a full space between each dot is "another Victorian eccentricity. In most contexts, the Chicago ellipsis is much too wide"—he recommends using flush dots, or [[thin space|''thin''-spaced]] dots (up to one-fifth of an [[em (typography)|em]]), or the prefabricated ellipsis character ([[Unicode]] U+2026, [[Latin entity]] <code>&hellip;</code>). Bringhurst suggests that normally an ellipsis should be spaced fore-and-aft to separate it from the text, but when it combines with other punctuation, the leading space disappears and the other punctuation follows. This is the usual practice in typesetting. He provides the following examples:
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| {| summary="six examples of setting ellipsis" style="margin-left:3em;"
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| |-
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| | style="width:5em;" | i … j
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| | style="width:5em;" | k….
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| | style="width:5em;" | l…, l
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| | style="width:5em;" | l, … l
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| | style="width:5em;" | m…?
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| | style="width:5em;" | n…!
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| |}
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| In legal writing in the United States, Rule 5.3 in the ''[[Bluebook]]'' citation guide governs the use of ellipsis and requires a space before the first dot and between the two subsequent dots. If an ellipsis ends the sentence, then there are three dots, each separated by a space, followed by the final punctuation. In some legal writing, an ellipsis is written as three [[asterisk]]s (*** or * * *) to make it obvious that text has been omitted.
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| ===In Polish===
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| When applied in [[Polish language]] syntax, the ellipsis is called {{lang|pl|''wielokropek''}}, which means "multidot". The word ''wielokropek'' distinguishes the ellipsis of Polish syntax from that of [[mathematical notation]], in which it is known as an {{lang|pl|''elipsa''}}.
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| When an ellipsis replaces a fragment omitted from a quotation, the ellipsis is enclosed in parentheses or square brackets. An unbracketed ellipsis indicates an interruption or pause in speech.
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| The syntactical rules for ellipses are standardized by the 1983 Polska Norma document [[PN-83/P-55366]], {{lang|pl|''Zasady składania tekstów w języku polskim''}} ("Rules for setting texts in the Polish Language").
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| ===In Russian===
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| The combination "ellipsis+period" is replaced by the ellipsis. The combinations "ellipsis+exclamation mark" and "ellipsis+question mark" are written in this way: !.. ?..
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| ===In Japanese===
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| The most common character corresponding to an ellipsis is called ''3''-ten rīdā ("''3''-dot leaders", {{lang|ja|…}}). 2-ten rīdā exists as a character, but it is used less commonly. In writing, the ellipsis consists usually of six dots (two ''3''-ten rīdā characters, {{lang|ja|……}}). Three dots (one ''3''-ten rīdā character) may be used where space is limited, such as in a header. However, variations in the number of dots exist. In horizontally written text the dots are commonly vertically centered within the text height (between the [[baseline (typography)|baseline]] and the ascent line), as in the standard Japanese [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] fonts; in vertically written text the dots are always centered horizontally. As the Japanese word for dot is pronounced "{{lang|ja-Latn|ten}}", the dots are colloquially called "{{lang|ja-Latn|ten-ten-ten}}" ({{lang|ja|てんてんてん}}, akin to the English "dot dot dot").
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| In [[manga]], the ellipsis by itself represents speechlessness, or a "[[pregnant pause]]". Given the context, this could be anything from an admission of guilt to an expression of being dumbfounded at another person's words or actions. As a device, the ''ten-ten-ten'' is intended to focus the reader on a character while allowing the character to not speak any dialogue. This conveys to the reader a focus of the narrative "camera" on the silent subject, implying an expectation of some motion or action. It is not unheard of to see inanimate objects "speaking" the ellipsis.
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| ===In Chinese===
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| {{unreferenced section|date=January 2011}}
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| In [[Chinese language|Chinese]], the ellipsis is six dots (in two groups of three dots, occupying the same horizontal space as two characters) (i.e. <span lang="zh">……</span>). The dots are always centered within the baseline and the ascender when horizontal (on the baseline has become acceptable){{Citation needed|date=June 2009}} and centered horizontally when vertical.
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| ===In French===
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| In [[French language|French]], the ellipsis is commonly used at the end of lists to represent ''[[et cetera]]''.
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| ==In mathematical notation==
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| An ellipsis is also often used in [[mathematics]] to mean "and so forth". In a list, between commas, or following a comma, a normal ellipsis is used, as in:
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| :<math>1,2,3,\ldots,100\,.</math>
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| To indicate the omission of values in a repeated operation, an ellipsis raised to the center of the line is used between two operation symbols or following the last operation symbol, as in:
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| :<math>1+2+3+\cdots+100\,</math>
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| (though sometimes, for example, in Russian mathematical texts, normal, non-raised, ellipses are used even in repeated summations<ref>Мильчин А. Э. [http://slovari.yandex.ru/~книги/Издательский%20словарь/Многоточие%20в%20математических%20формулах/ Издательский словарь-справочник].— Изд. 3-е, испр. и доп., Электронное — М.: ОЛМА-Пресс, 2006. (in Russian)</ref>).
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| The latter formula means the sum of all [[natural number]]s from 1 to 100. However, it is not a formally defined [[mathematical symbol]]. Repeated summations or products may similarly be denoted using [[capital sigma notation|capital sigma]] and [[capital pi notation]], respectively:
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| :<math>1+2+3+\cdots+100\ = \sum_{n=1}^{100} n</math>
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| :<math>1 \times 2 \times 3 \times \cdots \times 100\ = \prod_{n=1}^{100} n = 100!</math> (see [[factorial]])
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| Normally dots should be used only where the pattern to be followed is clear, the exception being to show the indefinite continuation of an [[irrational number]] such as:
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| :<math>\pi=3.14159265\ldots</math>
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| Sometimes, it is useful to display a formula compactly, for example:
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| :<math>1+4+9+\cdots+n^2+\cdots+400\,.</math>
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| Another example is the set of [[Root of a function|zeros]] of the [[cosine]] [[function (mathematics)|function]].
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| :<math>\left\{\pm\frac{\pi}{2}, \pm\frac{3\pi}{2}, \pm\frac{5\pi}{2}, \ldots \right\}\,.</math>
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| There are many related uses of the ellipsis in [[set notation]].
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| The diagonal and vertical forms of the ellipsis are particularly useful for showing missing terms in [[matrix (mathematics)|matrices]], such as the size-''n'' [[identity matrix]]
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| :<math>I_n = \begin{bmatrix}1 & 0 & \cdots & 0 \\0 & 1 & \cdots & 0 \\\vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\0 & 0 & \cdots & 1 \end{bmatrix}.</math>
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| The use of ellipses in mathematical proofs is often discouraged because of the potential for ambiguity. For this reason, and because the ellipsis supports no systematic rules for symbolic calculation, in recent years some authors have recommended avoiding its use in mathematics altogether.<ref>Roland Backhouse, ''Program Construction: Calculating Implementations from Specifications''. Wiley (2003), page 138</ref>
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| ==Computer interfaces and programming==
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| {{unreferenced section|date=January 2011}}
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| Ellipses are often used in an [[operating system]]'s [[taskbar]]s or [[web browser]] [[Tabbed document interface|tabs]] to indicate longer titles than will fit. Hovering the cursor over the tab often displays a [[tooltip]] of the full title. When many programs are open, or during a "tab explosion" in web browsing, the tabs may be reduced in size so much that no characters from the actual titles show, and ellipses take up all the space besides the program icon or [[favicon]].
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| In many [[user interface]] guidelines, a "…" after the name of a command implies that the user will need to provide further information, for example in a subsequent [[dialog box]], before the action can be completed. A typical example is the ''Save As…'' command, which after being clicked will usually require the user to enter a filename, as opposed to ''Save'' where the file will usually be saved under its existing name.
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| An ellipsis character after a status message signifies that an operation may take some time, as in "Downloading updates…".
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| The ellipsis is used as an [[operator (programming)|operator]] in some [[programming language]]s. The precise meaning varies by language, but it generally involves something dealing with multiple items. One of its most common uses is in defining [[variadic function]]s which can take an unknown number of arguments in the C, C++ and Java languages. ''See [[Ellipsis (programming operator)]]''.
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| ==On the Internet and in text messaging==
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| The ellipsis is a non-verbal cue that is often used in computer-mediated interactions, in particular in synchronous genres, such as chat. The reason behind its popularity is the fact that it allows people to indicate in writing several functions:
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| * the sign of ellipsis can function as a floor holding device, and signal that more is to come, for instance when people break up longer turns in chat<ref>{{cite journal|last=Simpson|first=J|title=Meaning-making online: Discourse and CMC in a Language learning community|journal=Recent Research Developments in Learning Technologies|year=2005|id = {{citeseerx|10.1.1.108.463}}|accessdate=<!-- 9 July 2012 -->}}</ref>
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| * dot-dot-dot can be used systematically to enact linguistic politeness, for instance indicating topic change or hesitation<ref>{{cite journal|last=Erika|first=Darics|title=Relational work in synchronous text-based CMC of virtual teams|journal=Handbook of research on discourse behavior and digital communication: language structures and social interaction|year=2010|url=http://eprints.port.ac.uk/3682/}}</ref>
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| * suspension dots can be [[turn construction unit]]s to signal silence, for example when indicating disagreement, disapproval or confusion <ref>{{cite journal|last=Ong|first=Kenneth Keng Wee|title=Disagreement, Confusion, Disapproval, Turn Elicitation and Floor Holding: Actions accomplished by Ellipsis Marks-Only Turns and Blank Turns in Quasisynchronous Chat|journal=Discourse Studies|year=2011|volume=13|issue=2}}</ref>
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| Although an ellipsis is technically complete with three periods (...), its rise in popularity as a "trailing-off" or "silence" indicator, particularly in mid-20th-century comic strip and comic book prose writing, has led to expanded uses online. Today, extended ellipsis anywhere from two to dozens of periods have become common constructions in Internet chat rooms and text messages.<ref name=dots>{{cite conference|url=http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/facultyprofiles/files/publications/ADmanessj/Maness--The%20Power%20of%20Dots%28personal%29.pdf|title=The Power of Dots: Using Nonverbal Compensators in Chat Reference|first=Jack M.|last=Maness|year=2007|conference=Annual Meeting of ASIS&T|conferenceurl=http://www.asis.org/Conferences/AM07/|booktitle=Proceedings of the 2007 Annual Meeting of ASIS&T|publisher=University Libraries − [[University of Colorado at Boulder]]|format=PDF|accessdate=24 October 2011}}</ref> The extent of repetition in itself might serve as an additional contextualization or paralinguistic cue, to "extend the lexical meaning of the words, add character to the sentences, and allow fine-tuning and personalisation of the message"<ref>{{cite web|last=Kalman|first=Yoram M et al.|title=CMC cues enrich lean online communication: the case of letter and punctuation mark repetitions|url=http://www.kalmans.com/MCIS2010Cues.pdf.|accessdate=9 July 2012}}</ref>
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| ==Computer representations==
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| In [[computing]], several ellipsis [[character (computing)|characters]] have been codified, depending on the system used.
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| In the [[Unicode]] standard, there are the following characters:
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| |-
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| ! Name !! Character !! Unicode !! [[HTML entity]] name or<br/>[[Numeric character reference]] !! Use
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| |-
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| | Horizontal ellipsis || style="text-align:center;"| … || style="text-align:center;"| U+2026 || style="text-align:center;"| <code>&hellip;</code> || style="text-align:center;"| General
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| |-
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| | [[Lao language|Laotian]] ellipsis || style="text-align:center;"| ຯ || style="text-align:center;"| U+0EAF || style="text-align:center;"| <code>&#x0EAF;</code> || style="text-align:center;"| General
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| |-
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| | [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]] ellipsis || style="text-align:center;"| ᠁ || style="text-align:center;"| U+1801 || style="text-align:center;"| <code>&#x1801;</code> || style="text-align:center;"| General
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| |-
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| | [[Thai language|Thai]] ellipsis || style="text-align:center;"| ฯ || style="text-align:center;"| U+0E2F || style="text-align:center;"| <code>&#x0E2F;</code> || style="text-align:center;"| General
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| |-
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| | Vertical ellipsis || style="text-align:center;"| ⋮ || style="text-align:center;"| U+22EE || style="text-align:center;"| <code>&vellip;</code> || style="text-align:center;"| Mathematics
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| |-
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| | Midline horizontal ellipsis || style="text-align:center;"| ⋯ || style="text-align:center;"| U+22EF || style="text-align:center;"| <code>&#x22EF;</code> || style="text-align:center;"| Mathematics
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| |-
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| | Up-right diagonal ellipsis || style="text-align:center;"| ⋰ || style="text-align:center;"| U+22F0 || style="text-align:center;"| <code>&#x22F0;</code> || style="text-align:center;"| Mathematics
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| |-
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| | Down-right diagonal ellipsis || style="text-align:center;"| ⋱ || style="text-align:center;"| U+22F1 || style="text-align:center;"| <code>&#x22F1;</code> || style="text-align:center;"| Mathematics
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| |-
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| | Presentation form for vertical horizontal ellipsis || style="text-align:center;"| ︙ || style="text-align:center;"| U+FE19 || style="text-align:center;"| <code>&#xFE19;</code> || style="text-align:center;"| Vertical form
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| |}
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| In Windows, it can be inserted with {{key press|Alt|0}}{{key press|1}}{{key press|3}}{{key press|3}}.
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| In MacOS, it can be inserted with {{key press|Opt|{{;}}}} (on an English language keyboard).
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| In Linux, it can be inserted with {{key press|AltGr|.}}
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| In [[Chinese language|Chinese]] and sometimes in [[Japanese language|Japanese]], ellipsis characters are done by entering{{clarify|date=February 2011}} two consecutive ''horizontal ellipsis'' (U+2026). In vertical texts, the application should rotate the symbol accordingly.<!-- what means "entering" something in [Chinese|Japanese] LANGUAGE?! -->
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| Unicode recognizes a series of three [[full stop|period]] characters (U+002E) as [[Unicode equivalence|compatibility equivalent (though not canonical)]] to the horizontal ellipsis character.<ref>[http://www.unicode.org/Public/UNIDATA/UnicodeData.txt UnicodeData.txt]: <code>2026;HORIZONTAL ELLIPSIS;Po;0;ON;<compat> 002E 002E 002E;;;;N;;;;;</code></ref>
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| In [[HTML]], the horizontal ellipsis character may be represented by the entity reference <code>&hellip;</code> (since HTML 4.0), and the vertical ellipsis character by the entity reference <code>&vellip;</code> (since HTML 5.0).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.w3.org/TR/2011/WD-html5-20110113/named-character-references.html#entity-vellip |title=W3C Working Draft: HTML5: 8.5 Named character references |year=2011 |accessdate=2012-11-08}}</ref> Alternatively, in HTML, [[XML]], and [[SGML]], a [[numeric character reference]] such as <code>&#x2026;</code> or <code>&#8230;</code> can be used.
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| In the [[TeX|{{TeX}}]] typesetting system, the following types of ellipsis are available:
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| ! Character name !! Character !! {{TeX}} markup
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| |-
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| | Lower ellipsis
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| | style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom;"| <math>\ldots\,\!</math>
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| | <code>\ldots</code>
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| |-
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| | Centred ellipsis
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| | style="text-align:center;"| <math>\cdots\,\!</math>
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| | <code>\cdots</code>
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| |-
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| | Diagonal ellipsis
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| | style="text-align:center;"| <math>\ddots\,\!</math>
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| | <code>\ddots</code>
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| |-
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| | Vertical ellipsis
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| | style="text-align:center;"| <math>\vdots\,\!</math>
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| | <code>\vdots</code>
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| |-
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| | Up-right diagonal ellipsis
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| | style="text-align:center;"| [[File:Iddots black.svg|18px]]
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| | <code>\reflectbox{\ddots}</code>
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| |}
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| The horizontal ellipsis character also appears in the following older character maps:
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| * in [[Windows code page|Windows-1250—Windows-1258]] and in IBM/MS-DOS [[Code page 874]], at [[code point|code]] 85 (hexadecimal)
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| * in [[Mac-Roman encoding|Mac-Roman]], [[Macintosh Central European encoding|Mac-CentEuro]] and several other Macintosh encodings<!-- surely, in MacCyrillic, but I am not willing to check how many Mac CPs have … at this code point --Incnis Mrsi -->, at code C9 (hexadecimal)
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| * in [[Ventura International encoding]] at code C1 (hexadecimal)
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| Note that [[ISO/IEC 8859]] encoding series provides no code point for ellipsis.
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| As with all characters, especially those outside of the [[ASCII]] range, the author, sender and receiver of an encoded ellipsis must be in agreement upon what bytes are being used to represent the character. Naive text processing software may improperly assume that a particular encoding is being used, resulting in [[mojibake]].
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| The [[The Chicago Manual of Style|Chicago Style]] Q&A recommends to avoid the use of '''…''' (U+2026) character in manuscripts and to place three periods plus two nonbreaking spaces (. . .) instead, so that an editor, publisher, or designer can replace them later.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/CMS_FAQ/SpecialCharacters/SpecialCharacters09.html |title=Chicago Style Q&A: How do I insert an ellipsis in my manuscript? |year=2010 |work=[[The Chicago Manual of Style]], edition 16 |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |accessdate=2011-02-10}}</ref>
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| In [[Abstract Syntax Notation One]] (ASN.1), the ellipsis is used as an extension marker to indicate the possibility of type extensions in future revisions of a protocol specification. In a type constraint expression like A ::= INTEGER (0..127, ..., 256..511) an ellipsis is used to separate the extension root from extension additions. The definition of type A in version 1 system of the form A ::= INTEGER (0..127, ...) and the definition of type A in version 2 system of the form A ::= INTEGER (0..127, ..., 256..511) constitute an extension series of the same type A in different versions of the same specification. The ellipsis can also be used in compound type definitions to separate the set of fields belonging to the extension root from the set of fields constituting extension additions. Here is an example: B ::= SEQUENCE { a INTEGER, b INTEGER, ..., c INTEGER } <!-- Is the s.n. ellipsis defined as a "..." trigraph or something else? This paragraph is a matter of syntax, not text *representation*, and therefore is misplaced. --Incnis Mrsi -->
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| ==See also==
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| * [[Cohesion (linguistics)]]
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| * [[Leader (typography)]], a row of characters (usu. dots or dashes) to connect items across a page (as in a table of contents)
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| ==References==
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| {{Reflist}}
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| ==Further reading==
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| <div class="references-small">
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| * {{cite book |title=[[The Elements of Typographic Style]] |last=Bringhurst |first=Robert |authorlink=Robert Bringhurst |edition=Version 2.5 |year=2002 |publisher=Hartley & Marks |location=[[Point Roberts, Washington]]|isbn=978-0-88179-132-7 |oclc=50848361 |pages=82–83}}
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| * Halliday, M.A.K, and Ruqayia, H. (1976), ''Cohesion in English'', London: Longman.
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| * {{cite book |title= The Houghton Mifflin Canadian Dictionary of the English Language|last= Morris|first= William|year= 1980|publisher= [[Houghton Mifflin Canada]]|location= [[Markham, Ontario|Markham, ON]]|isbn= 978-0-395-29654-7|oclc= 8063090|pages= 424 (spacing of dots: . . .)}}
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| [[Category:Punctuation]]
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| [[Category:Mathematical notation]]
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| [[Category:Typographical symbols]]
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