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| {{redirect|Crude Oil|the 2008 film|Crude Oil (film)|other uses|Petroleum (disambiguation)}}
| | == 表面が、 == |
| {{Use mdy dates|date=January 2012}}
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| [[File:Oil Reserves.png|thumb|400px|right|Proven world [[oil reserves]], 2009]]
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| [[File:Oil well.jpg|thumb|[[Pumpjack]] pumping an oil well near [[Lubbock, Texas]]]]
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| [[File:Photo lg kuwait.jpg|thumb|An oil refinery in Mina-Al-Ahmadi, Kuwait]]
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| '''Petroleum''' ([[Latin|L.]] ''petroleum'', from [[Greek language|Greek]]: ''πέτρα'' (rock) + {{lang-la|oleum}} (oil)<ref>"Petroleum". ''[[Concise Oxford English Dictionary]]''</ref><ref>The [[Latin]] word ''petra'' is a [[loanword]] from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''πέτρα''.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://alternativefuels.about.com/od/thedifferenttypes/a/gasolineorigins.htm |title=Gasoline as Fuel – History of Word Gasoline – Gasoline and Petroleum Origins |publisher=Alternativefuels.about.com |date=2013-07-12 |accessdate=2013-08-27}}</ref>) is a naturally occurring, yellow-to-black [[liquid]] found in [[Formation (stratigraphy)|geologic formations]] beneath the [[Earth|Earth's]] surface, which is commonly refined into various types of fuels. It consists of [[hydrocarbon]]s of various molecular weights and other liquid [[organic compound]]s.<ref>[http://www.eia.gov/KIDS/energy.cfm?page=oil_home-basics-k.cfm EIA Energy Kids - Oil (petroleum)]. Eia.gov. Retrieved on 2013-11-26.</ref> The name ''petroleum'' covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude oils and petroleum products that are made up of refined crude oil. A [[fossil fuel]], petroleum is formed when large quantities of dead organisms, usually [[zooplankton]] and [[algae]], are buried underneath [[sedimentary rock]] and undergo intense heat and pressure.
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| Petroleum is recovered mostly through [[oil drilling]]. This comes after the studies of structural geology (at the reservoir scale), sedimentary basin analysis, reservoir characterization (mainly in terms of the [[porosity]] and [[Permeability (earth sciences)|permeability]] of geologic reservoir structures).<ref>{{cite journal |author= Guerriero V. et al. |year=2012 |title= A permeability model for naturally fractured carbonate reservoirs |journal= Marine and Petroleum Geology | publisher = Elsevier |volume= 40 |pages= 115–134 |doi=10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2012.11.002 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2012.11.002}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Guerriero V. et al. |year=2011 |title= Improved statistical multi-scale analysis of fractures in carbonate reservoir analogues |journal= [[Tectonophysics (journal)|Tectonophysics]] |publisher = [[Elsevier]] |volume=504 |pages=14–24 |doi=10.1016/j.tecto.2011.01.003|bibcode = 2011Tectp.504...14G }}</ref> It is refined and separated, most easily by [[boiling point]], into a large number of consumer products, from [[gasoline]] (petrol) and [[kerosene]] to [[asphalt]] and chemical [[reagent]]s used to make [[plastic]]s and [[pharmaceuticals]].<ref name="Dixie State College">{{cite web |url=http://cactus.dixie.edu/smblack/chem1010/lecture_notes/2B.htm |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20110719184614/http://cactus.dixie.edu/smblack/chem1010/lecture_notes/2B.htm |archivedate=July 19, 2011 |title=Organic Hydrocarbons: Compounds made from carbon and hydrogen}}</ref> Petroleum is used in manufacturing a wide variety of materials,<ref name="Dixie State College 2">{{cite news| url=http://www.hindu.com/2011/03/01/stories/2011030155921100.htm | location=Chennai, India |work=The Hindu | title=Libyan tremors threaten to rattle the oil world | date=March 1, 2011}}</ref> and it is estimated that the world consumes about 90 million [[Barrel (unit)|barrels]] each day.
| | この火災の蓮レアものの、 [http://www.ispsc.edu.ph/nav/japandi/casio-rakuten-11.html casio 腕時計 メンズ] 'リトル男をしますが、皇室闘争に対抗するのに十分な強度、6次の魔法核の価値を知っている必要があります：古いの目が突然衝動の心を抑えることを余儀なく不安のヒントを、フラッシュし、監督小岩江は笑ったWarcraftの、どのように多くの人が彼らの注意をあえて？中庭のどの多くの長老、大長老、多分私の手に加えて、6次の魔法の核を1つだけですが。 [http://www.ispsc.edu.ph/nav/japandi/casio-rakuten-9.html カシオ 掛け時計] '<br>彼と言葉を交換していない場合<br>は間違いなく密かに彼の手に男が一枚6次の魔法核を持っている、シャオヤン、この中庭を思い出させる、これは意味言わなかった、私はそれだけで手ぶらで結果をドロップすることができますが怖いです [http://www.ispsc.edu.ph/nav/japandi/casio-rakuten-10.html カシオの時計]。<br><br>このオカルトの乾燥心を収まらない「性」のことを「私がしたいのですが、残念ながら、長老たちのための希望価格を得ることができませんでした。「長老劉不安収束の目がかなり良かったが、しかし、その、この [http://www.ispsc.edu.ph/nav/japandi/casio-rakuten-14.html カシオ腕時計 メンズ] 'セックス'したがってその反対シャオ円になりますが、レイは明らかに気分、心が大声で笑った瞬間を捉えましたと付け加えた。表面が、 |
| | 相关的主题文章： |
| | <ul> |
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| | <li>[http://www17.tok2.com/home/atom/cgi-k/hp/petit.cgi http://www17.tok2.com/home/atom/cgi-k/hp/petit.cgi]</li> |
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| | <li>[http://www.forestia.org/sunbbs/sunbbs.cgi http://www.forestia.org/sunbbs/sunbbs.cgi]</li> |
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| | <li>[http://cgi.www5c.biglobe.ne.jp/~hani/yybbs/yybbs.cgi http://cgi.www5c.biglobe.ne.jp/~hani/yybbs/yybbs.cgi]</li> |
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| | </ul> |
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| The use of fossil fuels such as petroleum can have a negative impact on Earth's biosphere, releasing pollutants and greenhouse gases into the air and damaging ecosystems through events such as [[oil spill]]s. Concern over the [[oil depletion|depletion]] of the earth's [[non-renewable resource|finite reserves]] of oil, and the effect this would have on a society dependent on it, is a concept known as [[peak oil]].
| | == 「皇帝の領土 == |
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| == Etymology ==
| | 魂の後半を通して日、それは実際に非常に多くの年のための席が最も強い人々を見てきているが、残念ながら、グレートパーフェク環境の時代から、全くわずかな距離が存在しない場合があり、魂の座が、グレートパーフェクションを通じて一日を越えて、天皇の存在の領土に到達！どのようにして、シートの戦いをあえて！ [http://www.ispsc.edu.ph/nav/japandi/casio-rakuten-4.html カシオ 腕時計 ソーラー] '<br><br>「皇帝の領土？ [http://www.ispsc.edu.ph/nav/japandi/casio-rakuten-2.html 腕時計 casio] '<br>、シャオヤン心臓突然苦いホップを言葉を聞く<br>、新興の約束、「色」の衝撃の一部の目には、これは、誰かが本当に魂の力皇帝の領土レベルを実践するためにそこに行くことができることを彼が聞いた初めてです今日の恨み大陸を見て、私は誰も本当に本当に、悪魔聖なる生活をこのポイントに到達することはできません怖いです [http://www.ispsc.edu.ph/nav/japandi/casio-rakuten-5.html カシオ 時計]。<br><br>は [http://www.ispsc.edu.ph/nav/japandi/casio-rakuten-4.html カシオ ソーラー電波腕時計] 'あなたは悪魔聖なる生活のなら、私は本当にあなたと戦うことはできませんが、彼の魂の、今あなただけのレムナント！'<br><br>シャオヤンはゆっくりと息を、足のステップを前方に押し込んだが、彼の体は、この瞬間にbaizhang数の急拡大で |
| The word ''petroleum'' comes from {{lang-gr|''πέτρα (petra)''}} for rocks and {{lang-gr|''ἔλαιον (elaion)''}} for oil. The term was found (in the spelling "petraoleum") in 10th-century Old English sources.<ref>Oxford English Dictionary online edition, entry "petroleum"</ref> It was used in the treatise ''De Natura Fossilium'', published in 1546 by the German mineralogist [[Georg Bauer]], also known as Georgius Agricola.<ref>Bauer (1546)</ref> In the 19th century, the term ''petroleum'' was frequently used to refer to mineral oils produced by distillation from mined organic solids such as [[cannel coal]] (and later [[oil shale]]), and refined oils produced from them; in the United Kingdom, storage (and later transport) of these oils were regulated by a series of Petroleum Acts, from the ''Petroleum Act 1862'' onwards.
| | 相关的主题文章： |
| | | <ul> |
| ==History==
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| {{Main|History of petroleum}}
| | <li>[http://atcollab.sourceforge.net/wiki/index.php/User:Uchrlmfbsn#.E3.80.8C.E3.82.AA.E3.83.83.E3.83.88.E3.83.BC.E3.81.AF.E3.80.81.E7.AB.8B.E3.81.A1.E4.B8.8A.E3.81.8C.E3.81.A3.E3.81.A6.E5.BE.AE.E7.AC.91.E3.82.93.E3.81.A7.E8.A8.80.E3.81.A3.E3.81.9F http://atcollab.sourceforge.net/wiki/index.php/User:Uchrlmfbsn#.E3.80.8C.E3.82.AA.E3.83.83.E3.83.88.E3.83.BC.E3.81.AF.E3.80.81.E7.AB.8B.E3.81.A1.E4.B8.8A.E3.81.8C.E3.81.A3.E3.81.A6.E5.BE.AE.E7.AC.91.E3.82.93.E3.81.A7.E8.A8.80.E3.81.A3.E3.81.9F]</li> |
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| ===Early history===
| | <li>[http://204.187.14.150/cgi-bin/photos/search.cgi http://204.187.14.150/cgi-bin/photos/search.cgi]</li> |
| [[File:Gusher Okemah OK 1922.jpg|thumb|Oil derrick in [[Okemah, Oklahoma]], 1922.]] | | |
| Petroleum, in one form or another, has been used since ancient times, and is now important across society, including in economy, politics and technology. The rise in importance was due to the invention of the [[internal combustion engine]], the rise in [[commercial aviation]], and the importance of petroleum to industrial organic chemistry, particularly the synthesis of plastics, fertilizers, solvents, adhesives and pesticides.
| | <li>[http://www.wzciyunsi.com/plus/feedback.php?aid=4 http://www.wzciyunsi.com/plus/feedback.php?aid=4]</li> |
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| More than 4000 years ago, according to [[Herodotus]] and [[Diodorus Siculus]], [[asphalt]] was used in the construction of the walls and towers of [[Babylon]]; there were oil pits near [[Ardericca]] (near Babylon), and a pitch spring on [[Zacynthus]].<ref name=EB1911>{{EB1911|title=Petroleum |inline=1 |url=http://www.studylight.org/enc/bri/view.cgi?number=25685}}</ref> Great quantities of it were found on the banks of the river [[Issus (river)|Issus]], one of the tributaries of the [[Euphrates]]. Ancient [[Persian Empire|Persian]] tablets indicate the medicinal and lighting uses of petroleum in the upper levels of their society. By 347 AD, oil was produced from bamboo-drilled wells in China.<ref>George E. Totten [http://www.astm.org/COMMIT/D02/to1899_index.html ASTM Timeline]</ref> Early British explorers to [[Myanmar]] documented a flourishing oil extraction industry based in [[Yenangyaung]], that in 1795 had hundreds of hand-dug wells under production.<ref>Longmuir, Marilyn V. "Oil in Burma: The Extraction of "Earth Oil" to 1914". Bangkok: White Lotus (2001) ISBN 974-7534-60-6 pp.329</ref> The mythological origins of the oil fields at [[Yenangyaung]], and its hereditary monopoly control by 24 families, indicate very ancient origins.
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| ===Modern history===
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| In 1847, the process to distill [[kerosene]] from petroleum was invented by [[James Young (Scottish chemist)|James Young]]. He noticed a natural petroleum seepage in the [[Riddings]] [[colliery]] at [[Alfreton]], [[Derbyshire]] from which he distilled a light thin oil suitable for use as lamp oil, at the same time obtaining a thicker oil suitable for lubricating machinery. In 1848 Young set up a small business refining the crude oil.
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| Young eventually succeeded, by distilling [[cannel coal]] at a low heat, in creating a fluid resembling petroleum, which when treated in the same way as the seep oil gave similar products. Young found that by slow distillation he could obtain a number of useful liquids from it, one of which he named "paraffine oil" because at low temperatures it congealed into a substance resembling paraffin wax.<ref name=russell>{{cite book | last = Russell | first = Loris S. | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = A Heritage of Light: Lamps and Lighting in the Early Canadian Home | publisher = University of Toronto Press | year = 2003 | location = | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 0-8020-3765-8}}</ref>
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| The production of these oils and solid [[paraffin wax]] from coal formed the subject of his patent dated 17 October 1850. In 1850 Young & Meldrum and Edward William Binney entered into partnership under the title of E.W. Binney & Co. at [[Bathgate]] in [[West Lothian]] and E. Meldrum & Co. at Glasgow; their works at Bathgate were completed in 1851 and became the first truly commercial oil-works in the world with the first modern oil refinery, using oil extracted from locally-mined [[torbanite]], shale, and bituminous coal to manufacture [[naphtha]] and lubricating oils; paraffin for fuel use and solid paraffin were not sold till 1856.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.undiscoveredscotland.co.uk/usbiography/y/jamesyoung.html|title=James Young}}</ref>
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| [[File:West Lothian shale bing, Scotland.JPG|thumb|Shale bings near [[Broxburn, West Lothian|Broxburn]], 3 of a total of 19 in [[West Lothian]]]]
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| Another early refinery was built by [[Ignacy Łukasiewicz]], providing a cheaper alternative to [[whale oil]]. The demand for petroleum as a fuel for lighting in North America and around the world quickly grew.<ref>Maugeri (2006), p. 3</ref> [[Edwin Drake]]'s 1859 well near Titusville, Pennsylvania, is popularly considered the first modern well. Drake's well is probably singled out because it was drilled, not dug; because it used a steam engine; because there was a company associated with it; and because it touched off a major boom.<ref>Vassiliou, M. S. (2009). Historical Dictionary of the Petroleum Industry. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press (Rowman & Littlefield), 700pp</ref> However, there was considerable activity before Drake in various parts of the world in the mid-19th century. A group directed by Major Alexeyev of the Bakinskii Corps of Mining Engineers hand-drilled a well in the Baku region in 1848.<ref>Matveichuk, Alexander A. Intersection of Oil Parallels: Historical Essays. Moscow: Russian Oil and Gas Institute, 2004.</ref> There were engine-drilled wells in West Virginia in the same year as Drake's well.<ref>McKain, David L., and Bernard L. Allen. Where It All Began: The Story of the People and Places Where the Oil Industry Began—West Virginia and South- eastern Ohio. Parkersburg, W.Va.: David L. McKain, 1994.</ref> An early commercial well was hand dug in [[Poland]] in 1853, and another in nearby [[Romania]] in 1857. At around the same time the world's first, small, oil refinery was opened at [[Jasło]] in Poland, with a larger one opened at [[Ploiești]] in Romania shortly after. Romania is the first country in the world to have had its annual crude oil output officially recorded in international statistics: 275 tonnes for 1857.<ref>[http://www.rri.ro/arh-art.shtml?lang=1&sec=9&art=3596 The History Of Romanian Oil Industry]</ref><ref>[http://www.pbs.org/eakins/we_1844.htm PBS: World Events]</ref>
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| The [[History of the petroleum industry in Canada#Early origins|first commercial oil well]] in Canada became operational in 1858 at [[Oil Springs, Ontario]] (then [[Canada West]]).<ref name="lclmg.org">http://www.lclmg.org/lclmg/Museums/OilMuseumofCanada/BlackGold2/OilHeritage/OilSprings/tabid/208/Default.aspx Oil Museum of Canada, Black Gold: Canada's Oil Heritage, Oil Springs: Boom & Bust</ref> Businessman [[James Miller Williams]] dug several wells between 1855 and 1858 before discovering a rich reserve of oil four metres below ground.<ref>Turnbull Elford, Jean. Canada West's Last Frontier. Lambton County Historical Society, 1982, p. 110</ref> Williams extracted 1.5 million litres of crude oil by 1860, refining much of it into kerosene lamp oil.<ref name="lclmg.org"/> William's well became commercially viable a year before Drake's Pennsylvania operation and could be argued to be the first commercial oil well in North America.<ref name="lclmg.org"/> The discovery at Oil Springs touched off an oil boom which brought hundreds of speculators and workers to the area. Advances in drilling continued into 1862 when local driller Shaw reached a depth of 62 metres using the spring-pole drilling method.<ref>May, Gary. Hard Oiler! The Story of Early Canadians' Quest for Oil at Home and Abroad. Dundurn Press, 1998, p 43</ref> On January 16, 1862, after an explosion of natural gas Canada's first oil gusher came into production, shooting into the air at a recorded rate of 3,000 barrels per day.<ref>Ford, R. W. A History of the Chemical Industry in Lambton County, 1988, p 5</ref> By the end of the 19th century the Russian Empire, particularly the [[Branobel]] company in [[Azerbaijan]], had taken the lead in production.<ref name = "Akiner">Akiner(2004), p. 5</ref>
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| Access to oil was and still is a major factor in several military conflicts of the twentieth century, including [[World War II]], during which oil facilities were a major strategic asset and were [[Oil Campaign chronology of World War II|extensively bombed]].<ref>Hanson Baldwin, 1959, [http://www.oil150.com/essays/2007/08/oil-strategy-in-world-war-ii "Oil Strategy in World War II"], ''American Petroleum Institute Quarterly – Centennial Issue'', pages 10–11. American Petroleum Institute.</ref> The [[Operation Barbarossa|German invasion of the Soviet Union]] included the goal to capture the [[Case Blue|Baku oilfields]], as it would provide much needed oil-supplies for the German military which was suffering from blockades.<ref>[http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/ai102_folder/102_articles/102_overview_alakbarov.html Baku: City that Oil Built] {{WebCite|url=http://www.webcitation.org/5wQnmLvaY|date =February 11, 2011}}</ref> Oil exploration in North America during the early 20th century later led to the U.S. becoming the leading producer by mid-century. As petroleum production in the U.S. peaked during the 1960s, however, the United States was surpassed by Saudi Arabia and the Soviet Union.
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| Today, about 90 percent of vehicular fuel needs are met by oil. Petroleum also makes up 40 percent of total energy consumption in the United States, but is responsible for only 1 percent of electricity generation. Petroleum's worth as a portable, dense energy source powering the vast majority of vehicles and as the base of many industrial chemicals makes it one of the world's most important [[commodity|commodities]]. Viability of the oil commodity is controlled by several key parameters, number of vehicles in the world competing for fuel, quantity of oil exported to the world market ([[Export Land Model]]), [[Net Energy Gain]] (economically useful energy provided minus energy consumed), political stability of oil exporting nations and ability to defend oil supply lines.
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| The top three oil producing countries are Russia, [[Saudi Arabia]], and the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0922041.html |title=InfoPlease |publisher=InfoPlease |accessdate=August 29, 2010}}</ref> About 80 percent of the world's readily accessible reserves are located in the Middle East, with 62.5 percent coming from the Arab 5: [[Saudi Arabia]], [[UAE]], Iraq, [[Qatar]] and [[Kuwait]]. A large portion of the world's total oil exists as unconventional sources, such as [[bitumen]] in [[Athabasca oil sands|Canada]] and [[oil shale]] in [[Orinoco Belt|Venezuela]]. While significant volumes of oil are extracted from oil sands, particularly in Canada, logistical and technical hurdles remain, as oil extraction requires large amounts of heat and water, making its net energy content quite low relative to conventional crude oil. Thus, Canada's oil sands are not expected to provide more than a few million barrels per day in the foreseeable future.
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| Conventional crude oil production, those having Net Energy Gain above 10 stopped growing in 2005 at about {{convert|74|Moilbbl/d|m3/d}}. The [[International Energy Agency]]'s (IEA) 2010 World Energy Outlook estimated that conventional crude oil production has peaked and is depleting at 6.8 percent per year{{citation needed|date=May 2012}}. [[US Joint Forces Command]]'s Joint Operating Environment 2010 issued this warning to all US military commands "By 2012, surplus oil production capacity could entirely disappear, and as early as 2015, the shortfall in output could reach nearly 10 million barrels per day."{{citation needed|date=January 2014}}
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| ==Composition==
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| In its strictest sense, petroleum includes only crude oil, but in common usage it includes all liquid, gaseous, and solid [[hydrocarbon]]s. Under surface [[standard conditions for temperature and pressure|pressure and temperature conditions]], lighter hydrocarbons [[methane]], [[ethane]], [[propane]] and [[butane]] occur as gases, while [[pentane]] and heavier ones are in the form of liquids or solids. However, in an underground [[oil reservoir]] the proportions of gas, liquid, and solid depend on subsurface conditions and on the [[phase diagram]] of the petroleum mixture.<ref name="Hyne 2001">Hyne (2001), pp. 1–4.</ref>
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| An [[oil well]] produces predominantly crude oil, with some natural gas [[solubility|dissolved]] in it. Because the pressure is lower at the surface than underground, some of the gas will come out of [[solution]] and be recovered (or burned) as ''associated gas'' or ''solution gas''. A [[gas well]] produces predominantly natural gas. However, because the underground temperature and pressure are higher than at the surface, the gas may contain heavier hydrocarbons such as pentane, [[hexane]], and [[heptane]] in the [[gaseous state]]. At surface conditions these will [[condense]] out of the gas to form [[natural gas condensate]], often shortened to ''condensate.'' Condensate resembles petrol in appearance and is similar in composition to some [[volatility (chemistry)|volatile]] [[light crude oil]]s.
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| The proportion of light hydrocarbons in the petroleum mixture varies greatly among different [[oil fields]], ranging from as much as 97 percent by weight in the lighter oils to as little as 50 percent in the heavier oils and [[bitumen]]s.
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| The hydrocarbons in crude oil are mostly [[alkane]]s, [[cycloalkane]]s and various [[aromatic hydrocarbon]]s while the other organic compounds contain [[nitrogen]], [[oxygen]] and [[sulfur]], and trace amounts of metals such as iron, nickel, copper and [[vanadium]]. The exact molecular composition varies widely from formation to formation but the proportion of [[chemical element]]s vary over fairly narrow limits as follows:<ref name="Speight">Speight (1999), p. 215–216.</ref>
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| [[File:Total World Oil Reserves.PNG|thumb|400px|Most of the world's oils are non-conventional.<ref>{{cite journal|author = Alboudwarej et al.|title = Highlighting Heavy Oil|publisher = Oilfield Review|date = Summer 2006|url = http://www.slb.com/~/media/Files/resources/oilfield_review/ors06/sum06/heavy_oil.ashx |format = PDF|accessdate =July 4, 2012}}</ref>]]
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| {| class = "wikitable"
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| |+ Composition by weight
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| ! Element !! Percent range
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| |Carbon || 83 to 85%
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| |Hydrogen || 10 to 14%
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| |Nitrogen || 0.1 to 2%
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| |Oxygen || 0.05 to 1.5%
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| |Sulfur || 0.05 to 6.0%
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| |Metals || < 0.1%
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| |}
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| Four different types of hydrocarbon molecules appear in crude oil. The relative percentage of each varies from oil to oil, determining the properties of each oil.<ref name="Hyne 2001"/>
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| {| class = "wikitable"
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| |+ Composition by weight
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| ! Hydrocarbon !! Average !! Range
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| |[[Alkanes|Alkanes (paraffins)]] || 30% || 15 to 60%
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| |[[Naphthene]]s || 49% || 30 to 60%
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| |[[Aromatic]]s || 15% || 3 to 30%
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| |[[Asphaltene|Asphaltics]] || 6% || remainder
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| |}
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| Crude oil varies greatly in appearance depending on its composition. It is usually black or dark brown (although it may be yellowish, reddish, or even greenish). In the reservoir it is usually found in association with natural gas, which being lighter forms a gas cap over the petroleum, and [[saline water]] which, being heavier than most forms of crude oil, generally sinks beneath it. Crude oil may also be found in semi-solid form mixed with sand and water, as in the [[Athabasca oil sands]] in Canada, where it is usually referred to as crude [[bitumen]]. In Canada, bitumen is considered a sticky, black, tar-like form of crude oil which is so thick and heavy that it must be heated or diluted before it will flow.<ref>{{cite web|title = Oil Sands – Glossary|work = Mines and Minerals Act|publisher = Government of Alberta|year = 2007|url = http://www.energy.gov.ab.ca/OilSands/1106.asp|archiveurl = //web.archive.org/web/20071101112113/http://www.energy.gov.ab.ca/OilSands/1106.asp|archivedate = November 1, 2007|accessdate =October 2, 2008}}</ref> Venezuela also has large amounts of oil in the [[Orinoco oil sands]], although the hydrocarbons trapped in them are more fluid than in Canada and are usually called [[extra heavy oil]]. These oil sands resources are called [[unconventional oil]] to distinguish them from oil which can be extracted using traditional oil well methods. Between them, Canada and [[Venezuela]] contain an estimated {{convert|3.6|Toilbbl}} of bitumen and extra-heavy oil, about twice the volume of the world's reserves of conventional oil.<ref>{{cite web|title = Oil Sands in Canada and Venezuela|publisher = Infomine Inc.|year = 2008|url = http://oilsands.infomine.com/countries/|accessdate =October 2, 2008}}</ref>
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| Petroleum is used mostly, by volume, for producing [[fuel oil]] and petrol, both important ''"[[primary energy]]"'' sources.<ref>[http://www.iea.org/bookshop/add.aspx?id=144 IEA Key World Energy Statistics]{{dead link|date=August 2010}}</ref> 84 percent by volume of the hydrocarbons present in petroleum is converted into energy-rich fuels (petroleum-based fuels), including petrol, diesel, jet, heating, and other fuel oils, and [[liquefied petroleum gas]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/non-renewable/oil.html#Howused |title=Crude oil is made into different fuels |publisher=Eia.doe.gov |accessdate=August 29, 2010}}</ref> The lighter grades of crude oil produce the best yields of these products, but as the world's reserves of light and medium oil are depleted, [[Oil refinery|oil refineries]] are increasingly having to process heavy oil and bitumen, and use more complex and expensive methods to produce the products required. Because heavier crude oils have too much carbon and not enough hydrogen, these processes generally involve removing carbon from or adding hydrogen to the molecules, and using [[fluid catalytic cracking]] to convert the longer, more complex molecules in the oil to the shorter, simpler ones in the fuels.
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| Due to its high [[energy density]], easy transportability and [[oil reserves|relative abundance]], oil has become the world's most important source of energy since the mid-1950s. Petroleum is also the raw material for many [[chemical]] products, including [[pharmaceutical]]s, [[solvent]]s, [[fertilizer]]s, [[pesticide]]s, and plastics; the 16 percent not used for energy production is converted into these other materials.
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| Petroleum is found in [[porosity|porous]] [[rock formations]] in the upper [[stratum|strata]] of some areas of the [[Earth]]'s [[crust (geology)|crust]]. There is also petroleum in [[tar sands|oil sands (tar sands)]]. Known [[oil reserves]] are typically estimated at around 190 km<sup>3</sup> (1.2 [[1000000000000 (number)|trillion]] [[long and short scales|(short scale)]] [[barrel (unit)|barrels]]) without oil sands,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/reserves.html |title=EIA reserves estimates |publisher=Eia.doe.gov |accessdate=August 29, 2010}}</ref> or 595 km<sup>3</sup> (3.74 trillion barrels) with oil sands.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cera.com/aspx/cda/public1/news/pressReleases/pressReleaseDetails.aspx?CID=8444 |title=CERA report on total world oil |publisher=Cera.com |date=November 14, 2006 |accessdate=August 29, 2010}}</ref> Consumption is currently around {{convert|84|Moilbbl}} per day, or 4.9 km<sup>3</sup> per year. Which in turn yields a remaining oil supply of only about 120 years, if current demand remain static.
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| ==Chemistry==
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| [[File:Octane molecule 3D model.png|thumb|[[Octane]], a [[hydrocarbon]] found in petroleum. Lines represent [[single bond]]s; black spheres represent [[carbon]]; white spheres represent [[hydrogen]].]]
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| Petroleum is a mixture of a very large number of different [[hydrocarbon]]s; the most commonly found molecules are [[alkane]]s (paraffins), [[cycloalkane]]s ([[naphthene]]s), [[aromatic hydrocarbon]]s, or more complicated chemicals like [[asphaltene]]s. Each petroleum variety has a unique mix of [[molecule]]s, which define its physical and chemical properties, like color and [[viscosity]].
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| The ''alkanes'', also known as ''paraffins'', are [[saturation (chemistry)|saturated]] hydrocarbons with straight or branched chains which contain only [[carbon]] and [[hydrogen]] and have the general formula C<sub>n</sub>H<sub>2n+2</sub>. They generally have from 5 to 40 carbon atoms per molecule, although trace amounts of shorter or longer molecules may be present in the mixture.
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| The alkanes from [[pentane]] (C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>12</sub>) to [[octane]] (C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>18</sub>) are [[oil refinery|refined]] into petrol, the ones from [[nonane]] (C<sub>9</sub>H<sub>20</sub>) to [[hexadecane]] (C<sub>16</sub>H<sub>34</sub>) into [[diesel fuel]], [[kerosene]] and [[jet fuel]]. Alkanes with more than 16 carbon atoms can be refined into [[fuel oil]] and [[lubricating oil]]. At the heavier end of the range, [[paraffin wax]] is an alkane with approximately 25 carbon atoms, while [[asphalt]] has 35 and up, although these are usually [[Fluid catalytic cracking|cracked]] by modern refineries into more valuable products. The shortest molecules, those with four or fewer carbon atoms, are in a gaseous state at room temperature. They are the petroleum gases. Depending on demand and the cost of recovery, these gases are either [[flare stack|flared off]], sold as [[liquified petroleum gas]] under pressure, or used to power the refinery's own burners. During the winter, butane (C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>10</sub>), is blended into the petrol pool at high rates, because its high vapor pressure assists with cold starts. Liquified under pressure slightly above atmospheric, it is best known for powering cigarette lighters, but it is also a main fuel source for many developing countries. Propane can be liquified under modest pressure, and is consumed for just about every application relying on petroleum for energy, from cooking to heating to transportation.
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| The ''cycloalkanes'', also known as ''naphthenes'', are saturated hydrocarbons which have one or more carbon rings to which hydrogen atoms are attached according to the formula C<sub>n</sub>H<sub>2n</sub>. Cycloalkanes have similar properties to alkanes but have higher boiling points.
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| The ''aromatic hydrocarbons'' are [[degree of unsaturation|unsaturated hydrocarbons]] which have one or more planar six-carbon rings called [[benzene ring]]s, to which hydrogen atoms are attached with the formula C<sub>n</sub>H<sub>n</sub>. They tend to burn with a sooty flame, and many have a sweet aroma. Some are [[carcinogenic]].
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| These different molecules are separated by [[fractional distillation]] at an oil refinery to produce petrol, jet fuel, kerosene, and other hydrocarbons. For example, [[2,2,4-trimethylpentane]] (isooctane), widely used in petrol, has a chemical formula of C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>18</sub> and it reacts with oxygen [[exothermic]]ally:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.webmo.net/curriculum/heat_of_combustion/heat_of_combustion_key.html |title=Heat of Combustion of Fuels |publisher=Webmo.net |accessdate=August 29, 2010}}</ref>
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| :2 {{chem|C|8|H|18}}<sub>(''l'')</sub> + 25 {{chem|O|2}}<sub>(''g'')</sub> → 16 {{chem|CO|2}}<sub>(''g'')</sub> + 18 {{chem|H|2|O}}<sub>(''g'')</sub> (ΔH = −5.51 MJ/mol of octane)
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| The number of various molecules in an oil sample can be determined in laboratory. The molecules are typically extracted in a [[solvent]], then separated in a [[gas chromatograph]], and finally determined with a suitable [[detector]], such as a [[flame ionization detector]] or a [[mass spectrometer]].<ref>[http://www.norden.org/pub/ebook/2003-516.pdf Use of ozone depleting substances in laboratories]. TemaNord 2003:516.</ref> Due to the large number of co-eluted hydrocarbons within oil, many cannot be resolved by traditional gas chromatography and typically appear as a hump in the chromatogram. This [[unresolved complex mixture]] (UCM) of hydrocarbons is particularly apparent when analysing weathered oils and extracts from tissues of organisms exposed to oil.
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| Incomplete combustion of petroleum or petrol results in production of toxic byproducts. Too little oxygen results in [[carbon monoxide]]. Due to the high temperatures and high pressures involved, exhaust gases from petrol combustion in car engines usually include [[nitrogen oxide]]s which are responsible for creation of [[photochemical smog]].
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| ==Empirical equations for thermal properties==
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| ===Heat of combustion===
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| At a constant volume the heat of combustion of a petroleum product can be approximated as follows:
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| :<math>Q_v = 12400, - 2,100d^2</math>.
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| where <math>Q_v</math> is measured in cal/gram and d is the [[specific gravity]] at {{convert|60|°F|°C|abbr=on}}.
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| ===Thermal conductivity===
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| The thermal conductivity of petroleum based liquids can be modeled as follows:
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| :<math>K = \frac{0.823}{d}[1-0.0203(t-32)]</math>0.547
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| where K is measured in BTU{{middot}}hr<sup>−1</sup>ft<sup>−2</sup> , t is measured in F and d is the specific gravity at {{convert|60|°F|°C|abbr=on}}.
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| ===Specific heat===
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| The specific heat of a petroleum oils can be modeled as follows:<ref name="Speight2007">Speight (2007), p. 25.</ref>
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| :<math>c = \frac{1}{d} [0.388+0.00045t]</math>,
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| where c is measured in BTU/lbm-°F, t is the temperature in Fahrenheit and ''d'' is the specific gravity at {{convert|60|°F|°C|abbr=on}}.
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| In units of kcal/(kg·°C), the formula is:
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| :<math>c = \frac{1}{d} [0.4024+0.00081t]</math>,
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| where the temperature ''t'' is in Celsius and ''d'' is the specific gravity at 15 °C.
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| ===Latent heat of vaporization===
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| The latent heat of vaporization can be modeled under atmospheric conditions as follows:
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| :<math>L = \frac{1}{d}[110.9 - 0.09t]</math>,
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| where L is measured in BTU/lbm, t is measured in °F and d is the specific gravity at {{convert|60|°F|°C|abbr=on}}.
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| In units of kcal/kg, the formula is:
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| :<math>L = \frac{1}{d}[194.4 - 0.162t]</math>,
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| where the temperature ''t'' is in Celsius and ''d'' is the specific gravity at 15 °C.<ref>United States Bureau of Standards, "Thermal Properties of Petroleum Products". Miscellaneous Publication No. 97, November 9, 1929.</ref>
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| ==Formation==
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| [[File:Treibs&Chlorophyll.png|thumb|350 px|right|Structure of a vanadium [[porphyrin]] compound (left) extracted from petroleum by [[Alfred E. Treibs]], father of [[organic geochemistry]]. Treibs noted the close structural similarity of this molecule and [[chlorophyll a]] (right).<ref>{{cite journal | author = Treibs, A.E. | title = Chlorophyll- und Häminderivate in organischen Mineralstoffen | journal = Angew. Chem. | year = 1936 | volume = 49 | pages = 682–686 | doi = 10.1002/ange.19360493803 | issue = 38}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Kvenvolden, K. A. | title = Organic geochemistry – A retrospective of its first 70 years | journal = Org. Geochem. | year = 2006 | volume = 37 | pages = 1–11 | doi = 10.1016/j.orggeochem.2005.09.001}}</ref>]]
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| Petroleum is a [[fossil fuel]] derived from ancient [[fossilized]] [[organic material]]s, such as [[zooplankton]] and [[algae]].<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.orggeochem.2005.09.001|title=Organic geochemistry – A retrospective of its first 70 years|year=2006|last1=Kvenvolden|first1=Keith A.|journal=Organic Geochemistry|volume=37|page=1}}</ref> Vast quantities of these remains settled to sea or lake bottoms, mixing with sediments and being buried under [[anoxic sea water|anoxic conditions]]. As further layers settled to the sea or lake bed, intense heat and pressure built up in the lower regions. This process caused the organic matter to change, first into a waxy material known as [[kerogen]], which is found in various [[oil shale]]s around the world, and then with more heat into liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons via a process known as [[catagenesis (geology)|catagenesis]]. Formation of petroleum occurs from [[hydrocarbon]] [[pyrolysis]] in a variety of mainly [[endothermic]] reactions at high temperature and/or pressure.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.osti.gov/bridge/servlets/purl/10169154-cT5xip/10169154.PDF |title=Chemical Reaction Model for Oil and Gas Generation from Type I and Type II Kerogen |last1=Braun |first1=Robert L. |last2=Burnham |first2=lan K. |publisher=Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory |date=June 1993 |accessdate=August 29, 2010}}</ref>
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| There were certain warm nutrient-rich environments such as the [[Gulf of Mexico]] and the ancient [[Tethys Sea]] where the large amounts of organic material falling to the ocean floor exceeded the rate at which it could decompose. This resulted in large masses of organic material being buried under subsequent deposits such as shale formed from mud. This massive organic deposit later became heated and transformed under pressure into oil.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/03/science/03oil.html |title=Tracing Oil Reserves to Their Tiny Origins |first=William J. |last=Broad |work=The New York Times |date=August 2, 2010 |accessdate=August 2, 2010}}</ref>
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| Geologists often refer to the temperature range in which oil forms as an "oil window"<ref>{{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/?id=xwLHnC9qMsgC&pg=PA104&dq=%22oil+window%22+geology#v=onepage&q=%22oil%20window%22%20geology&f=false |title=Polar Prospects:A minerals treaty for Antarctica |publisher=United States, Office of Technology Assessment |date=September 1989 |page=104 |isbn=978-1-4289-2232-7}}</ref>—below the minimum temperature oil remains trapped in the form of kerogen, and above the maximum temperature the oil is converted to natural gas through the process of [[thermal cracking]]. Sometimes, oil formed at extreme depths may migrate and become trapped at a much shallower level. The [[Athabasca Oil Sands]] are one example of this.
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| An alternative mechanism was proposed by Russian scientists in the mid-1850s, the [[Abiogenic petroleum origin]], but this is contradicted by the geological and geochemical evidence.{{citation needed|date=January 2014}}
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| ==Reservoirs==
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| ===Crude oil reservoirs===
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| [[File:Structural Trap (Anticlinal).svg|thumb|140px|Hydrocarbon trap.]]
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| Three conditions must be present for oil reservoirs to form: a [[source rock]] rich in hydrocarbon material buried deep enough for subterranean heat to cook it into oil, a [[porous]] and [[permeability (fluid)|permeable]] reservoir rock for it to accumulate in, and a cap rock (seal) or other mechanism that prevents it from escaping to the surface. Within these reservoirs, fluids will typically organize themselves like a three-layer cake with a layer of water below the oil layer and a layer of gas above it, although the different layers vary in size between reservoirs. Because most hydrocarbons are less dense than rock or water, they often migrate upward through adjacent rock layers until either reaching the surface or becoming trapped within porous rocks (known as [[oil reservoir|reservoirs]]) by impermeable rocks above. However, the process is influenced by underground water flows, causing oil to migrate hundreds of kilometres horizontally or even short distances downward before becoming trapped in a reservoir. When hydrocarbons are concentrated in a trap, an [[oil field]] forms, from which the liquid can be extracted by [[drill]]ing and [[pump]]ing.
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| The reactions that produce oil and natural gas are often modeled as first order breakdown reactions, where hydrocarbons are broken down to oil and natural gas by a set of parallel reactions, and oil eventually breaks down to natural gas by another set of reactions. The latter set is regularly used in [[petrochemical]] plants and [[Oil refinery|oil refineries]].
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| Wells are drilled into oil reservoirs to extract the crude oil. "Natural lift" production methods that rely on the natural reservoir pressure to force the oil to the surface are usually sufficient for a while after reservoirs are first tapped. In some reservoirs, such as in the Middle East, the natural pressure is sufficient over a long time. The natural pressure in most reservoirs, however, eventually dissipates. Then the oil must be extracted using "[[artificial lift]]" means. Over time, these "primary" methods become less effective and "secondary" production methods may be used. A common secondary method is [[Water injection (oil production)|"waterflood"]] or injection of water into the reservoir to increase pressure and force the oil to the drilled shaft or "wellbore." Eventually "tertiary" or "enhanced" oil recovery methods may be used to increase the oil's flow characteristics by injecting steam, carbon dioxide and other gases or chemicals into the reservoir. In the United States, primary production methods account for less than 40 percent of the oil produced on a daily basis, secondary methods account for about half, and tertiary recovery the remaining 10 percent. Extracting oil (or "bitumen") from oil/tar sand and oil shale deposits requires mining the sand or shale and heating it in a vessel or retort, or using "in-situ" methods of injecting heated liquids into the deposit and then pumping out the oil-saturated liquid.
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| ===Unconventional oil reservoirs===
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| {{See also|Unconventional oil|Oil sands|Oil shale reserves}}
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| Oil-eating bacteria [[biodegradation|biodegrade]] oil that has escaped to the surface. [[Oil sands]] are reservoirs of partially biodegraded oil still in the process of escaping and being biodegraded, but they contain so much migrating oil that, although most of it has escaped, vast amounts are still present—more than can be found in conventional oil reservoirs. The lighter fractions of the crude oil are destroyed first, resulting in reservoirs containing an extremely heavy form of crude oil, called crude bitumen in Canada, or extra-heavy crude oil in [[Venezuela]]. These two countries have the world's largest deposits of oil sands.
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| On the other hand, [[oil shale]]s are source rocks that have not been exposed to heat or pressure long enough to convert their trapped hydrocarbons into crude oil. Technically speaking, oil shales are not always shales and do not contain oil, but are fined-grain sedimentary rocks containing an insoluble organic solid called [[kerogen]]. The kerogen in the rock can be converted into crude oil using heat and pressure to simulate natural processes. The method has been known for centuries and was patented in 1694 under British Crown Patent No. 330 covering, "A way to extract and make great quantities of pitch, tar, and oil out of a sort of stone." Although oil shales are found in many countries, the United States has the world's largest deposits.<ref name=Lambertson>{{cite news|title=Oil Shale: Ready to Unlock the Rock|first=Giles|last=Lambertson|publisher=Construction Equipment Guide|url=http://www.cegltd.com/story.asp?story=10092|date=February 16, 2008|accessdate=May 21, 2008}}</ref>
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| ==Classification==
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| [[File:Crudes.PNG|thumb|350px|Some [[Benchmark (crude oil)|marker crudes]] with their [[sulfur content]] (horizontal) and [[API gravity]] (vertical) and relative production quantity.]]
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| {{See also|Benchmark (crude oil)}}
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| The [[petroleum industry]] generally classifies crude oil by the geographic location it is produced in (e.g. [[West Texas Intermediate]], [[Brent oilfield|Brent]], or [[Oman]]), its [[API gravity]] (an oil industry measure of density), and its sulfur content. Crude oil may be considered ''[[Light crude oil|light]]'' if it has low density or ''[[Heavy crude oil|heavy]]'' if it has high density; and it may be referred to as [[sweet crude oil|sweet]] if it contains relatively little sulfur or ''[[sour crude oil|sour]]'' if it contains substantial amounts of sulfur.
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| The geographic location is important because it affects transportation costs to the refinery. ''Light'' crude oil is more desirable than ''heavy'' oil since it produces a higher yield of petrol, while ''sweet'' oil commands a higher price than ''sour'' oil because it has fewer environmental problems and requires less refining to meet sulfur standards imposed on fuels in consuming countries. Each crude oil has unique molecular characteristics which are understood by the use of [[Crude oil assay|crude oil assay analysis]] in petroleum laboratories.
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| [[barrel (unit)|Barrels]] from an area in which the crude oil's molecular characteristics have been determined and the oil has been classified are used as pricing [[Benchmark (crude oil)|references]] throughout the world. Some of the common reference crudes are:
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| * [[West Texas Intermediate]] (WTI), a very high-quality, sweet, light oil delivered at [[Cushing, Oklahoma]] for North American oil
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| * [[Brent Crude|Brent Blend]], comprising 15 oils from fields in the [[Brent oilfield|Brent]] and [[Ninian]] systems in the [[East Shetland Basin]] of the [[North Sea]]. The oil is landed at [[Sullom Voe]] terminal in [[Shetland]]. Oil production from Europe, Africa and Middle Eastern oil flowing West tends to be priced off this oil, which forms a [[Benchmark (crude oil)|benchmark]]
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| * [[Dubai Crude|Dubai-Oman]], used as benchmark for Middle East sour crude oil flowing to the Asia-Pacific region
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| * [[Tapis crude|Tapis]] (from [[Malaysia]], used as a reference for light Far East oil)
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| * Minas (from [[Indonesia]], used as a reference for heavy Far East oil)
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| * The [[OPEC Reference Basket]], a weighted average of oil blends from various [[OPEC]] (The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) countries
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| * [[Midway-Sunset Oil Field|Midway Sunset]] Heavy, by which heavy oil in California is priced<ref>{{cite web|url=http://crudemarketing.chevron.com/posted_pricing_daily_california.asp |title=Chevron Crude Oil Marketing – North America Posted Pricing – California |publisher=Crudemarketing.chevron.com |date=May 1, 2007 |accessdate=August 29, 2010}}</ref>
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| There are declining amounts of these benchmark oils being produced each year, so other oils are more commonly what is actually delivered. While the reference price may be for West Texas Intermediate delivered at Cushing, the actual oil being traded may be a discounted Canadian heavy oil delivered at [[Hardisty, Alberta|Hardisty]], [[Alberta]], and for a Brent Blend delivered at Shetland, it may be a Russian Export Blend delivered at the port of [[Primorsk, Leningrad Oblast|Primorsk]].<ref>{{cite web |title= Light Sweet Crude Oil |work= About the Exchange |publisher= New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX) |year= 2006 |url= http://www.nymex.com/lsco_fut_descri.aspx |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20080314074204/http://www.nymex.com/lsco_fut_descri.aspx |archivedate= March 14, 2008 |accessdate= April 21, 2008}}</ref>
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| ==Petroleum industry==
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| [[File:Crude oil price WTI EIA since 2000.svg|thumb|[[New York Mercantile Exchange]] prices for West Texas Intermediate since 2000]]
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| {{Main|Petroleum industry}}
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| The petroleum industry is involved in the global processes of [[Hydrocarbon exploration|exploration]], [[Extraction of petroleum|extraction]], [[Oil refinery|refining]], [[Petroleum transport|transporting]] (often with [[oil tanker]]s and [[Pipeline transport|pipelines]]), and marketing petroleum products. The largest volume products of the industry are [[fuel oil]] and petrol. Petroleum is also the raw material for many [[Petrochemical|chemical products]], including pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers, pesticides, and plastics. The industry is usually divided into three major components: [[Upstream (oil industry)|upstream]], [[midstream]] and [[Downstream (oil industry)|downstream]]. Midstream operations are usually included in the downstream category.
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| Petroleum is vital to many industries, and is of importance to the maintenance of industrialized [[civilization]] itself, and thus is a critical concern to many nations. Oil accounts for a large percentage of the world's energy consumption, ranging from a low of 32 percent for Europe and Asia, up to a high of 53 percent for the Middle East, South and Central America (44%), Africa (41%), and North America (40%). The world at large consumes 30 billion [[Barrel (unit)|barrels]] (4.8 km³) of oil per year, and the top oil consumers largely consist of developed nations. In fact, 24 percent of the oil consumed in 2004 went to the United States alone,<ref>{{cite web |title= International Energy Annual 2004 |publisher= Energy Information Administration |date= July 14, 2006 |url= http://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/international/iealf/tablee2.xls |format= XLS}}<!-- For annual updates use the search at http://www.eia.doe.gov/ for terms "International Energy Annual 2006" "Tables" "Petroleum consumption" --></ref> though by 2007 this had dropped to 21 percent of world oil consumed.<ref>{{cite web |title= Yearbook 2008 – crude oil |publisher= Energy data |url= http://yearbook.enerdata.net}}</ref>
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| In the US, in the states of [[Arizona]], California, Hawaii, [[Nevada]], [[Oregon]] and [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]], the [[Western States Petroleum Association]] (WSPA) represents companies responsible for producing, distributing, refining, transporting and marketing petroleum. This non-profit trade association was founded in 1907, and is the oldest petroleum trade association in the United States.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.wspa.org/about/index.htm |title= About Us |accessdate= November 3, 2008 |publisher= Western States Petroleum Association |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20080616140609/http://www.wspa.org/about/index.htm |archivedate= June 16, 2008}}</ref>
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| === Shipping ===
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| In the 1950s, shipping costs made up 33 percent of the price of oil transported from the Persian Gulf to USA,<ref name="economist.com">{{cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/node/21558456 |title=A liquid market: Thanks to LNG, spare gas can now be sold the world over |date=14 July 2012 |publisher=The Economist |accessdate=6 January 2013}}</ref> but due to the development of [[supertankers]] in the 1970s, the cost of shipping dropped to only 5 percent of the price of Persian oil in USA.<ref name="economist.com"/> Due to the increase of the value of the crude oil during the last 30 years, the share of the shipping cost on the final cost of the delivered commodity was less than 3% in 2010. For example, in 2010 the shipping cost from the Persian Gulf to the USA was in the range of 20 $/t and the cost of the delivered crude oil around 800 $/t.{{citation needed|date=January 2013}}
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| ==Price==
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| {{Main|Price of petroleum}}
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| After the collapse of the OPEC-administered pricing system in 1985, and a short lived experiment with netback pricing, oil-exporting countries adopted a market-linked pricing mechanism.<ref name="Mabro">Mabro (2006), p. 351.</ref> First adopted by [[PEMEX]] in 1986, market-linked pricing was widely accepted, and by 1988 became and still is the main method for pricing crude oil in international trade.<ref name="Mabro" /> The current reference, or pricing markers, are [[Brent Crude|Brent]], [[West Texas Intermediate|WTI]], and [[Dubai Crude|Dubai/Oman]].<ref name="Mabro" />
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| ==Uses==
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| {{Further|Petroleum products}}
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| The chemical structure of petroleum is [[Heterogeneity|heterogeneous]], composed of [[hydrocarbon]] chains of different lengths. Because of this, petroleum may be taken to [[oil refinery|oil refineries]] and the hydrocarbon chemicals separated by [[distillation]] and treated by other [[chemical process]]es, to be used for a variety of purposes. See [[Petroleum product]]s.
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| ===Fuels===
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| [[File:Ride with hitler.jpg|thumb|200px|A poster used to promote [[carpooling]] as a way to ration gasoline during World War II.]]
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| The most common [[Fractional distillation|distillation fractions]] of petroleum are [[fuel]]s.
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| Fuels include (by increasing boiling temperature range):<ref name="Speight1">Speight (1999), p. 543.</ref>
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| {| class = "wikitable"
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| |+ Common fractions of petroleum as fuels
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| |-
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| ! Fraction !! Boiling range <sup>o</sup>C
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| |-
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| |[[Liquefied petroleum gas]] (LPG) || −40
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| |-
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| |[[Butane]] || −12 to −1
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| |-
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| |[[Petrol]] || −1 to 110
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| |-
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| |[[Jet fuel]] || 150 to 205
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| |-
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| |[[Kerosene]] || 205 to 260
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| |-
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| |[[Fuel oil]] || 205 to 290
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| |-
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| |[[Diesel fuel]] || 260 to 315
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| |}
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| ===Other derivatives===
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| Certain types of resultant hydrocarbons may be mixed with other non-hydrocarbons, to create other end products:
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| * [[Alkenes]] (olefins) which can be manufactured into plastics or other compounds
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| * [[Lubricant]]s (produces light machine oils, [[motor oil]]s, and [[Grease (lubricant)|greases]], adding [[viscosity]] stabilizers as required).
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| * [[Wax]], used in the packaging of [[frozen food]]s, among others.
| |
| * [[Sulfur]] or [[Sulfuric acid]]. These are useful industrial materials. Sulfuric acid is usually prepared as the acid precursor [[oleum]], a byproduct of [[Hydrodesulfurization|sulfur removal]] from fuels.
| |
| * Bulk [[tar]]
| |
| * [[Asphalt]]
| |
| * [[Petroleum coke]], used in speciality carbon products or as solid fuel.
| |
| * [[Paraffin wax]]
| |
| * [[Aromatic]] [[petrochemical]]s to be used as precursors in other [[chemical]] production.
| |
| | |
| ===Agriculture===
| |
| Since the 1940s, agricultural productivity has increased dramatically, due largely to the increased use of energy-intensive [[mechanization]], [[fertilizer]]s and [[pesticide]]s. Nearly all pesticides and many fertilizers are made from oil.<ref>"[http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/world-oil-supplies-are-set-to-run-out-faster-than-expected-warn-scientists-6262621.html World oil supplies are set to run out faster than expected, warn scientists]". ''The Independent''. June 14, 2007.</ref>
| |
| | |
| ==Petroleum by country==
| |
| <!-- this was a left over from a previous incarnation of the section. It is no longer a useful link. I looked around for a better link but didn't find one. Feel free to create an article on consumption/production etc. by country {{main|Petroleum Industry}} -->
| |
| | |
| ===Consumption statistics===
| |
| <gallery widths=160px heights=140px>
| |
| File:Global Carbon Emissions.svg|Global fossil carbon emissions, an indicator of consumption, for 1800–2007. Total is black, Oil is in blue.
| |
| File:World energy consumption.svg|Rate of world energy usage per day, from 1970 to 2010. 1000[[TWh]]=1PWh.<ref name="BP-Report-2012">BP: [http://www.bp.com/sectiongenericarticle800.do?categoryId=9037130&contentId=7068669 Statistical Review of World Energy], Workbook (xlsx), London, 2012</ref>
| |
| File:Oil consumption per day by region from 1980 to 2006.svg|daily oil consumption from 1980 to 2006
| |
| File:Oil consumption per day by region from 1980 to 2006 solid3.svg|oil consumption by percentage of total per region from 1980 to 2006: <span style="color:red">'''red'''</span>=USA, <span style="color:blue">'''blue'''</span>=Europe, <span style="color:#D1D117">'''yellow'''</span>=Asia+Oceania
| |
| File:World oil consumption 1980 to 2007 by region.svg|Oil consumption 1980 to 2007 by region.
| |
| </gallery>
| |
| | |
| ===Consumption===
| |
| According to the US Energy Information Administration (EIA) estimate for 2011, the world consumes 87.421 million barrels of oil each day.
| |
| <!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[File:WorldPetroleum2007.png|thumb|center|550px|Mean oil production by country in 2007, shown as a percentage of the top producer (Saudi Arabia – 10.2 millions of barrels per day).]] -->
| |
| [[File:OilConsumptionpercapita.png|thumb|center|550px|Oil consumption per capita (darker colors represent more consumption, gray represents no data).]]
| |
| | |
| This table orders the amount of petroleum consumed in 2011 in thousand [[Barrel (unit)|barrels]] (1000 bbl) per day and in thousand cubic metres (1000 m<sup>3</sup>) per day:<ref>U.S. Energy Information Administration. [http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/RecentPetroleumConsumptionBarrelsperDay.xls Excel file] from [http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/dnav/pet/pet_pri_wco_k_w.htm this] web page. Table Posted: March 1, 2010</ref><ref>From DSW-Datareport 2008 ("Deutsche Stiftung Weltbevölkerung")</ref><ref>One cubic metre of oil is equivalent to 6.28981077 barrels of oil</ref>
| |
| {| style="text-align:right;" class="wikitable sortable"
| |
| |-
| |
| !Consuming Nation 2011
| |
| !(1000 bbl/<br>day)
| |
| !(1000 m<sup>3</sup>/<br>day)
| |
| !population<br>in millions
| |
| !bbl/year<br>per capita
| |
| !m<sup>3</sup>/year<br>per capita
| |
| !national production/<br>consumption
| |
| |-
| |
| |{{rh}}|United States <sup>1</sup> || {{convert|18835.5|oilbbl|m3|1|disp=table}} || 314
| |
| |{{convert|{{#expr:(365*18835.5/314658)round1}}|oilbbl|m3|disp=table}} || 0.51
| |
| |-
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[People's Republic of China|China]] || {{convert|9790.0|oilbbl|m3|1|disp=table}} || 1345
| |
| |{{convert|{{#expr:(365*9790.0/1345750)round1}}|oilbbl|m3|disp=table}} || 0.41
| |
| |-
| |
| |{{rh}}|Japan <sup>2</sup> || {{convert|4464.1|oilbbl|m3|1|disp=table}} || 127
| |
| |{{convert|{{#expr:(365*4464.1/127156)round1}}|oilbbl|m3|disp=table}} || 0.03
| |
| |-
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[India]] <sup>2</sup> || {{convert|3292.2|oilbbl|m3|1|disp=table}} || 1198
| |
| |{{convert|{{#expr:(365*3292.2/1198003)round1}}|oilbbl|m3|disp=table}} || 0.26
| |
| |-
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Russia]] <sup>1</sup> || {{convert|3145.1|oilbbl|m3|1|disp=table}} || 140
| |
| |{{convert|{{#expr:(365*3145.1/140873)round1}}|oilbbl|m3|disp=table}} || 3.35
| |
| |-
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Saudi Arabia]] ([[OPEC]]) || {{convert|2817.5|oilbbl|1|m3|1|disp=table}} || 27
| |
| |{{convert|{{#expr:(365*2817.5/25720)round1}}|oilbbl|m3|disp=table}} || 3.64
| |
| |-
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Brazil]] || {{convert|2594.2|oilbbl|1|m3|1|disp=table}} || 193
| |
| |{{convert|{{#expr:(365*2594.2/193733)round1}}|oilbbl|m3|disp=table}} || 0.99
| |
| |-
| |
| |{{rh}}|Germany <sup>2</sup> || {{convert|2400.1|oilbbl|m3|1|disp=table}} || 82
| |
| |{{convert|{{#expr:(365*2400.1/82166)round1}}|oilbbl|m3|disp=table}} || 0.06
| |
| |-
| |
| |{{rh}}|Canada || {{convert|2259.1|oilbbl|1|m3|1|disp=table}} || 33
| |
| |{{convert|{{#expr:(365*2259.1/33573)round1}}|oilbbl|m3|disp=table}} || 1.54
| |
| |-
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[South Korea]] <sup>2</sup> || {{convert|2230.2|oilbbl|1|m3|1|disp=table}} || 48
| |
| |{{convert|{{#expr:(365*2230.2/48332)round1}}|oilbbl|m3|disp=table}} || 0.02
| |
| |-
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Mexico]] <sup>1</sup> || {{convert|2132.7|oilbbl|1|m3|1|disp=table}} || 109
| |
| |{{convert|{{#expr:(365*2132.7/109610)round1}}|oilbbl|m3|disp=table}} || 1.39
| |
| |-
| |
| |{{rh}}|France <sup>2</sup>|| {{convert|1791.5|oilbbl|1|m3|1|disp=table}} || 62
| |
| |{{convert|{{#expr:(365*1791.5/62342)round1}}|oilbbl|m3|disp=table}} || 0.03
| |
| |-
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Iran]] ([[OPEC]])|| {{convert|1694.4|oilbbl|1|m3|1|disp=table}} || 74
| |
| |{{convert|{{#expr:(365*1694.4/74195)round1}}|oilbbl|m3|disp=table}} || 2.54
| |
| |-
| |
| |{{rh}}|United Kingdom <sup>1</sup> || {{convert|1607.9|oilbbl|1|m3|1|disp=table}} || 61
| |
| |{{convert|{{#expr:(365*1607.9/61565)round1}}|oilbbl|m3|disp=table}} || 0.93
| |
| |-
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Italy]] <sup>2</sup>|| {{convert|1453.6|oilbbl|1|m3|1|disp=table}} || 60
| |
| |{{convert|{{#expr:(365*1453.6/59870)round1}}|oilbbl|m3|disp=table}} || 0.10
| |
| |}
| |
| Source: [http://www.eia.gov/cfapps/ipdbproject/IEDIndex3.cfm?tid=5&pid=5&aid=2 US Energy Information Administration]
| |
| | |
| Population Data:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibge.gov.br/paisesat/main.php |title=IBGE |publisher=IBGE |accessdate=August 29, 2010}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| <small><sup>1</sup> [[Peak oil|peak production of oil]] already passed in this state</small>
| |
| | |
| <small><sup>2</sup> This country is not a major oil producer</small>
| |
| | |
| ===Production===
| |
| {{For|oil reserves by country|Oil reserves#Proven reserves in order}}
| |
| | |
| [[File:Oil producing countries map.png|thumb|center|550px|Oil producing [[List of oil-producing states|countries]]]]
| |
| | |
| [[File:Top Oil Producing Counties.png|thumb|250px|right|Graph of Top Oil Producing Countries 1960–2006, including Soviet Union<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/aer/pdf/pages/sec11_10.pdf |title=World Crude Oil Production |format=PDF |accessdate=August 29, 2010}}</ref>]]
| |
| | |
| In petroleum industry parlance, ''production'' refers to the quantity of crude extracted from reserves, not the literal creation of the product.
| |
| | |
| {| style="text-align:right;" class="wikitable sortable"
| |
| |-
| |
| !#
| |
| !Producing Nation
| |
| !10<sup>3</sup>bbl/d (2006)
| |
| !10<sup>3</sup>bbl/d (2007)
| |
| !10<sup>3</sup>bbl/d (2008)
| |
| !10<sup>3</sup>bbl/d (2009)
| |
| !Present Share
| |
| |-
| |
| |1
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Saudi Arabia]] (OPEC)
| |
| |10,665
| |
| |10,234
| |
| |10,782
| |
| |9,760
| |
| |11.8%
| |
| |-
| |
| |2
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Russia]] <sup>1</sup>
| |
| |9,677
| |
| |9,876
| |
| |9,789
| |
| |9,934
| |
| |12.0%
| |
| |-
| |
| |3
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[United States]] <sup>1</sup>
| |
| |8,331
| |
| |8,481
| |
| |8,514
| |
| |9,141
| |
| |11.1%
| |
| |-
| |
| |4
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Iran]] (OPEC)
| |
| |4,148
| |
| |4,043
| |
| |4,174
| |
| |4,177
| |
| |5.1%
| |
| |-
| |
| |5
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[People's Republic of China|China]]
| |
| |3,846
| |
| |3,901
| |
| |3,973
| |
| |3,996
| |
| |4.8%
| |
| |-
| |
| |6
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Canada]] <sup>2</sup>
| |
| |3,288
| |
| |3,358
| |
| |3,350
| |
| |3,294
| |
| |4.0%
| |
| |-
| |
| |7
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Mexico]] <sup>1</sup>
| |
| |3,707
| |
| |3,501
| |
| |3,185
| |
| |3,001
| |
| |3.6%
| |
| |-
| |
| |8
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[United Arab Emirates]] (OPEC)
| |
| |2,945
| |
| |2,948
| |
| |3,046
| |
| |2,795
| |
| |3.4%
| |
| |-
| |
| |9
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Kuwait]] (OPEC)
| |
| |2,675
| |
| |2,613
| |
| |2,742
| |
| |2,496
| |
| |3.0%
| |
| |-
| |
| |10
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Venezuela]] (OPEC) <sup>1</sup>
| |
| |2,803
| |
| |2,667
| |
| |2,643
| |
| |2,471
| |
| |3.0%
| |
| |-
| |
| |11
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Norway]] <sup>1</sup>
| |
| |2,786
| |
| |2,565
| |
| |2,466
| |
| |2,350
| |
| |2.8%
| |
| |-
| |
| |12
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Brazil]]
| |
| |2,166
| |
| |2,279
| |
| |2,401
| |
| |2,577
| |
| |3.1%
| |
| |-
| |
| |13
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Iraq]] (OPEC) <sup>3</sup>
| |
| |2,008
| |
| |2,094
| |
| |2,385
| |
| |2,400
| |
| |2.9%
| |
| |-
| |
| |14
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Algeria]] (OPEC)
| |
| |2,122
| |
| |2,173
| |
| |2,179
| |
| |2,126
| |
| |2.6%
| |
| |-
| |
| |15
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Nigeria]] (OPEC)
| |
| |2,443
| |
| |2,352
| |
| |2,169
| |
| |2,211
| |
| |2.7%
| |
| |-
| |
| |16
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Angola]] (OPEC)
| |
| |1,435
| |
| |1,769
| |
| |2,014
| |
| |1,948
| |
| |2.4%
| |
| |-
| |
| |17
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Libya]] (OPEC)
| |
| |1,809
| |
| |1,845
| |
| |1,875
| |
| |1,789
| |
| |2.2%
| |
| |-
| |
| |18
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[United Kingdom]]
| |
| |1,689
| |
| |1,690
| |
| |1,584
| |
| |1,422
| |
| |1.7%
| |
| |-
| |
| |19
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Kazakhstan]]
| |
| |1,388
| |
| |1,445
| |
| |1,429
| |
| |1,540
| |
| |1.9%
| |
| |-
| |
| |20
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Qatar]] (OPEC)
| |
| |1,141
| |
| |1,136
| |
| |1,207
| |
| |1,213
| |
| |1.5%
| |
| |-
| |
| |21
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Indonesia]]
| |
| |1,102
| |
| |1,044
| |
| |1,051
| |
| |1,023
| |
| |1.2%
| |
| |-
| |
| |22
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[India]]
| |
| |854
| |
| |881
| |
| |884
| |
| |877
| |
| |1.1%
| |
| |-
| |
| |23
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Azerbaijan]]
| |
| |648
| |
| |850
| |
| |875
| |
| |1,012
| |
| |1.2%
| |
| |-
| |
| |24
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Argentina]]
| |
| |802
| |
| |791
| |
| |792
| |
| |794
| |
| |1.0%
| |
| |-
| |
| |25
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Oman]]
| |
| |743
| |
| |714
| |
| |761
| |
| |816
| |
| |1.0%
| |
| |-
| |
| |26
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Malaysia]]
| |
| |729
| |
| |703
| |
| |727
| |
| |693
| |
| |0.8%
| |
| |-
| |
| |27
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Egypt]]
| |
| |667
| |
| |664
| |
| |631
| |
| |678
| |
| |0.8%
| |
| |-
| |
| |28
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Colombia]]
| |
| |544
| |
| |543
| |
| |601
| |
| |686
| |
| |0.8%
| |
| |-
| |
| |29
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Australia]]
| |
| |552
| |
| |595
| |
| |586
| |
| |588
| |
| |0.7%
| |
| |-
| |
| |30
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Ecuador]] (OPEC)
| |
| |536
| |
| |512
| |
| |505
| |
| |485
| |
| |0.6%
| |
| |-
| |
| |31
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Sudan]]
| |
| |380
| |
| |466
| |
| |480
| |
| |486
| |
| |0.6%
| |
| |-
| |
| |32
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Syria]]
| |
| |449
| |
| |446
| |
| |426
| |
| |400
| |
| |0.5%
| |
| |-
| |
| |33
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Equatorial Guinea]]
| |
| |386
| |
| |400
| |
| |359
| |
| |346
| |
| |0.4%
| |
| |-
| |
| |34
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Thailand]]
| |
| |334
| |
| |349
| |
| |361
| |
| |339
| |
| |0.4%
| |
| |-
| |
| |35
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Vietnam]]
| |
| |362
| |
| |352
| |
| |314
| |
| |346
| |
| |0.4%
| |
| |-
| |
| |36
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Yemen]]
| |
| |377
| |
| |361
| |
| |300
| |
| |287
| |
| |0.3%
| |
| |-
| |
| |37
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Denmark]]
| |
| |344
| |
| |314
| |
| |289
| |
| |262
| |
| |0.3%
| |
| |-
| |
| |38
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Gabon]]
| |
| |237
| |
| |244
| |
| |248
| |
| |242
| |
| |0.3%
| |
| |-
| |
| |39
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[South Africa]]
| |
| |204
| |
| |199
| |
| |195
| |
| |192
| |
| |0.2%
| |
| |-
| |
| |40
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Turkmenistan]]
| |
| |No data
| |
| |180
| |
| |189
| |
| |198
| |
| |0.2%
| |
| |-
| |
| |41
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Trinidad and Tobago]]
| |
| |181
| |
| |179
| |
| |176
| |
| |174
| |
| |0.1%
| |
| |}
| |
| Source: [http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/index.cfm U.S. Energy Information Administration]
| |
| | |
| <small><sup>1</sup> Peak production of conventional oil already passed in this state</small>
| |
| | |
| <small><sup>2</sup> Although Canada's conventional oil production is declining, its total oil production is increasing as oil sands production grows. When oil sands are included, Canada has the world's second largest oil reserves after Saudi Arabia.
| |
| | |
| <small><sup>3</sup> Trinidad and Tobago has the worlds third largest pitch lake situated La Brea south Trinidad
| |
| | |
| <small><sup>4</sup> Though still a member, Iraq has not been included in production figures since 1998
| |
| | |
| In 2013, the United States will produce an average of 11.4 million barrels a day, which would make it the second largest producer of hydrocarbons,<ref>{{cite news |title=U.S. may soonbecome world's top oil producer |url=http://m.cbsnews.com/fullstory.rbml?catid=57538431&feed_id=76&videofeed=43 |newspaper=CBS News |date=23 October 2012 |accessdate=9 February 2013}}</ref> and is expected to overtake Saudi Arabia before 2020.<ref>{{cite news |title=U.S. to become biggest oil producer – IEA |author=Mark Thompson |url=http://money.cnn.com/2012/11/12/news/economy/us-oil-production-energy/index.html |newspaper=CNN |date=12 November 2012 |accessdate=9 February 2013}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===Export===
| |
| {{See also|Fossil fuel exporters|Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries}}
| |
| [[File:Oil exports.PNG|thumb|550px|right|Oil exports by country.]]
| |
| | |
| In order of net exports in 2011, 2009 and 2006 in thousand [[Barrel (unit)|bbl]]/[[Day|d]] and thousand m³/d:
| |
| {| style="text-align:right;" class="wikitable sortable"
| |
| |-
| |
| !#
| |
| !Exporting Nation
| |
| !10<sup>3</sup>bbl/d (2011)
| |
| !10<sup>3</sup>m<sup>3</sup>/d (2011)
| |
| !10<sup>3</sup>bbl/d (2009)
| |
| !10<sup>3</sup>m<sup>3</sup>/d (2009)
| |
| !10<sup>3</sup>bbl/d (2006)
| |
| !10<sup>3</sup>m<sup>3</sup>/d (2006)
| |
| |-
| |
| |1
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Saudi Arabia]] (OPEC)
| |
| |8,336
| |
| |1,325
| |
| |7,322
| |
| |1,164
| |
| |8,651
| |
| |1,376
| |
| |-
| |
| |2
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Russia]] <sup>1</sup>
| |
| |7,083
| |
| |1,126
| |
| |7,194
| |
| |1,144
| |
| |6,565
| |
| |1,044
| |
| |-
| |
| |3
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Iran]] (OPEC)
| |
| |2,540
| |
| |403
| |
| |2,486
| |
| |395
| |
| |2,519
| |
| |401
| |
| |-
| |
| |4
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[United Arab Emirates]] (OPEC)
| |
| |2,524
| |
| |401
| |
| |2,303
| |
| |366
| |
| |2,515
| |
| |400
| |
| |-
| |
| |5
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Kuwait]] (OPEC)
| |
| |2,343
| |
| |373
| |
| |2,124
| |
| |338
| |
| |2,150
| |
| |342
| |
| |-
| |
| |6
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Nigeria]] (OPEC)
| |
| |2,257
| |
| |359
| |
| |1,939
| |
| |308
| |
| |2,146
| |
| |341
| |
| |-
| |
| |7
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Iraq]] (OPEC)
| |
| |1,915
| |
| |304
| |
| |1,764
| |
| |280
| |
| |1,438
| |
| |229
| |
| |-
| |
| |8
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Angola]] (OPEC)
| |
| |1,760
| |
| |280
| |
| |1,878
| |
| |299
| |
| |1,363
| |
| |217
| |
| |-
| |
| |9
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Norway]] <sup>1</sup>
| |
| |1,752
| |
| |279
| |
| |2,132
| |
| |339
| |
| |2,542
| |
| |404
| |
| |-
| |
| |10
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Venezuela]] (OPEC) <sup>1</sup>
| |
| |1,715
| |
| |273
| |
| |1,748
| |
| |278
| |
| |2,203
| |
| |350
| |
| |-
| |
| |11
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Algeria]] (OPEC) <sup>1</sup>
| |
| |1,568
| |
| |249
| |
| |1,767
| |
| |281
| |
| |1,847
| |
| |297
| |
| |-
| |
| |12
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Qatar]] (OPEC)
| |
| |1,468
| |
| |233
| |
| |1,066
| |
| |169
| |
| | –
| |
| | –
| |
| |-
| |
| |13
| |
| |{{rh}}|Canada <sup>2</sup>
| |
| |1,405
| |
| |223
| |
| |1,168
| |
| |187
| |
| |1,071
| |
| |170
| |
| |-
| |
| |14
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Kazakhstan]]
| |
| |1,396
| |
| |222
| |
| |1,299
| |
| |207
| |
| |1,114
| |
| |177
| |
| |-
| |
| |15
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Azerbaijan]] (OPEC) <sup>1</sup>
| |
| |836
| |
| |133
| |
| |912
| |
| |145
| |
| |532
| |
| |85
| |
| |-
| |
| |16
| |
| |{{rh}}|[[Trinidad and Tobago]] <sup>1</sup>
| |
| |177
| |
| |112
| |
| |167
| |
| |160
| |
| |155
| |
| |199
| |
| |}
| |
| Source: [http://www.eia.gov/countries/index.cfm?topL=exp US Energy Information Administration]
| |
| | |
| <small><sup>1</sup> [[Peak oil|peak production]] already passed in this state</small>
| |
| | |
| <small><sup>2</sup> Canadian statistics are complicated by the fact it is both an importer and exporter of crude oil, and refines large amounts of oil for the U.S. market. It is the leading source of U.S. imports of oil and products, averaging {{convert|2500000|oilbbl/d|abbr=on}} in August 2007.
| |
| [http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/dnav/pet/pet_move_impcus_a2_nus_ep00_im0_mbblpd_m.htm].</small>
| |
| | |
| Total world production/consumption (as of 2005) is approximately {{convert|84|Moilbbl/d|m3/d}}.
| |
| | |
| ===Import===
| |
| [[File:Oil imports.PNG|thumb|550px|right|Oil imports by country.]]
| |
| | |
| In order of net imports in 2011, 2009 and 2006 in thousand [[Barrel (unit)|bbl]]/[[Day|d]] and thousand m³/d:
| |
| {| style="text-align:right;" class="wikitable sortable"
| |
| |-
| |
| !#
| |
| !Importing Nation
| |
| !10<sup>3</sup>bbl/day (2011)
| |
| !10<sup>3</sup>m<sup>3</sup>/day (2011)
| |
| !10<sup>3</sup>bbl/day (2009)
| |
| !10<sup>3</sup>m<sup>3</sup>/day (2009)
| |
| !10<sup>3</sup>bbl/day (2006)
| |
| !10<sup>3</sup>m<sup>3</sup>/day (2006)
| |
| |-
| |
| |1
| |
| |{{rh}}|United States <sup>1</sup>
| |
| |8,728
| |
| |1,388
| |
| |9,631
| |
| |1,531
| |
| |12,220
| |
| |1,943
| |
| |-
| |
| |2
| |
| |{{rh}}|China <sup>2</sup>
| |
| |5,487
| |
| |872
| |
| |4,328
| |
| |688
| |
| |3,438
| |
| |547
| |
| |-
| |
| |3
| |
| |{{rh}}|Japan
| |
| |4,329
| |
| |688
| |
| |4,235
| |
| |673
| |
| |5,097
| |
| |810
| |
| |-
| |
| |4
| |
| |{{rh}}|India
| |
| |2,349
| |
| |373
| |
| |2,233
| |
| |355
| |
| |1,687
| |
| |268
| |
| |-
| |
| |5
| |
| |{{rh}}|Germany
| |
| |2,235
| |
| |355
| |
| |2,323
| |
| |369
| |
| |2,483
| |
| |395
| |
| |-
| |
| |6
| |
| |{{rh}}|South Korea
| |
| |2,170
| |
| |345
| |
| |2,139
| |
| |340
| |
| |2,150
| |
| |342
| |
| |-
| |
| |7
| |
| |{{rh}}|France
| |
| |1,697
| |
| |270
| |
| |1,749
| |
| |278
| |
| |1,893
| |
| |301
| |
| |-
| |
| |8
| |
| |{{rh}}|Spain
| |
| |1,346
| |
| |214
| |
| |1,439
| |
| |229
| |
| |1,555
| |
| |247
| |
| |-
| |
| |9
| |
| |{{rh}}|Italy
| |
| |1,292
| |
| |205
| |
| |1,381
| |
| |220
| |
| |1,558
| |
| |248
| |
| |-
| |
| |10
| |
| |{{rh}}|Singapore
| |
| |1,172
| |
| |186
| |
| |916
| |
| |146
| |
| |787
| |
| |125
| |
| |-
| |
| |11
| |
| |{{rh}}|Republic of China (Taiwan)
| |
| |1,009
| |
| |160
| |
| |944
| |
| |150
| |
| |942
| |
| |150
| |
| |-
| |
| |12
| |
| |{{rh}}|Netherlands
| |
| |948
| |
| |151
| |
| |973
| |
| |155
| |
| |936
| |
| |149
| |
| |-
| |
| |13
| |
| |{{rh}}|Turkey
| |
| |650
| |
| |103
| |
| |650
| |
| |103
| |
| |576
| |
| |92
| |
| |-
| |
| |14
| |
| |{{rh}}|Belgium
| |
| |634
| |
| |101
| |
| |597
| |
| |95
| |
| |546
| |
| |87
| |
| |-
| |
| |15
| |
| |{{rh}}|Thailand
| |
| |592
| |
| |94
| |
| |538
| |
| |86
| |
| |606
| |
| |96
| |
| |}
| |
| Source: [http://www.eia.gov/countries/index.cfm?topL=imp US Energy Information Administration]
| |
| | |
| <small><sup>1</sup> [[Peak oil|peak production of oil]] expected in 2020</small><ref name=eia2014er>"[http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/er/early_production.cfm AEO2014 EARLY RELEASE OVERVIEW]" [http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/er/pdf/0383er(2014).pdf Early report] ''[[US Energy Information Administration]]'', December 2013. Accessed: December 2013. Quote: <small>"Domestic production of crude oil .. increases sharply .. is expected to level off and then slowly decline after 2020"</small></ref>
| |
| | |
| <small><sup>2</sup> Major oil producer whose production is still increasing</small>{{citation needed|date=November 2010}}
| |
| | |
| ===Import to the USA by country 2010===
| |
| [[File:Oilimportsus2010.svg|thumb|left|350px|oil imports to US 2010]]
| |
| | |
| ===Non-producing consumers===
| |
| Countries whose oil production is 10% or less of their consumption.
| |
| | |
| {| style="text-align:right;" class="wikitable sortable"
| |
| |-
| |
| !#
| |
| !Consuming Nation
| |
| !(bbl/day)
| |
| !(m³/day)
| |
| |-
| |
| |1
| |
| |{{rh}}|Japan
| |
| |5,578,000
| |
| |886,831
| |
| |-
| |
| |2
| |
| |{{rh}}|Germany
| |
| |2,677,000
| |
| |425,609
| |
| |-
| |
| |3
| |
| |{{rh}}|South Korea
| |
| |2,061,000
| |
| |327,673
| |
| |-
| |
| |4
| |
| |{{rh}}|France
| |
| |2,060,000
| |
| |327,514
| |
| |-
| |
| |5
| |
| |{{rh}}|Italy
| |
| |1,874,000
| |
| |297,942
| |
| |-
| |
| |6
| |
| |{{rh}}|Spain
| |
| |1,537,000
| |
| |244,363
| |
| |-
| |
| |7
| |
| |{{rh}}|Netherlands
| |
| |946,700
| |
| |150,513
| |
| |-
| |
| |8
| |
| |{{rh}}|Turkey
| |
| |575,011
| |
| |91,663
| |
| |}
| |
| Source: [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2175rank.html CIA World Factbook]{{Failed verification|date=July 2010|reason=maybe factbook changed? suggest clarify this table by using a factbook snapshot of a specific year}}
| |
| | |
| ==Environmental effects==
| |
| [[File:Dieselrainbow.jpg|thumb|Diesel fuel spill on a road]]
| |
| {{Main|Environmental issues with petroleum}}
| |
| | |
| Because petroleum is a naturally occurring substance, its presence in the environment need not be the result of human causes such as accidents and routine activities ([[seismology|seismic]] exploration, [[Boring (earth)|drilling]], extraction, refining and combustion). Phenomena such as [[petroleum seep|seeps]]<ref>http://seeps.wr.usgs.gov/ Natural Oil and Gas Seeps in California</ref> and [[tar pit]]s are examples of areas that petroleum affects without man's involvement. Regardless of source, petroleum's effects when released into the environment are similar.
| |
| | |
| ===Global warming===
| |
| When burned, petroleum releases carbon dioxide; a [[greenhouse gas]]. Along with the burning of coal, petroleum combustion is the largest contributor to the increase in atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub>. Atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> has risen steadily since the [[industrial revolution]] to current levels of over 390 ppmv, from the [[Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere#Past variation|180 – 300 ppmv of the prior 800 thousand years]], driving [[global warming]].<ref>[http://maps.grida.no/go/graphic/historical-trends-in-carbon-dioxide-concentrations-and-temperature-on-a-geological-and-recent-time-scale Historical trends in carbon dioxide concentrations and temperature, on a geological and recent time scale]. (June 2007). In UNEP/GRID-Arendal Maps and Graphics Library. Retrieved 19:14, February 19, 2011.</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/5314592.stm Deep ice tells long climate story]. Retrieved 19:14, February 19, 2011.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author= Mitchell John F. B. |year= 1989 |title= The "Greenhouse" Effect and Climate Change |journal= Reviews of Geophysics |volume= 27 |issue= 1 |pages= 115–139 |doi= 10.1029/RG027i001p00115 |bibcode= 1989RvGeo..27..115M}}</ref> The unbridled use of petroleum could potentially cause a [[runaway greenhouse effect]] on Earth.{{Citation needed|date=April 2012}} Use of oil as an energy source has caused Earth's temperature to increase by nearly one degree Celsius. This raise in temperature has reduced the Arctic ice cap to {{convert|1100000|mi2|abbr=on}}, smaller than ever recorded.<ref>McKibbin, Bill. Eaarth: Making a Life on a Tough New Planet. New York: Times, 2010 ISBN 978-0312541194</ref> Because of this melt, more oil reserves have been revealed. It is estimated by the International Energy Agency that about 13 percent of the world's undiscovered oil resides in the Arctic.<ref>"Arctic Sea Ice Reaches New Low, Shattering Record Set Just 3 Weeks Ago." NBCNews.com, 19 Sept. 2012. Web. 1 Oct. 2012. <http://worldnews.nbcnews.com>.</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===Extraction===
| |
| Oil extraction is simply the removal of oil from the reservoir (oil pool). Oil is often recovered as a water-in-oil emulsion, and [[specialty chemicals]] called [[demulsifiers]] are used to separate the oil from water. Oil extraction is costly and sometimes environmentally damaging, although [[John Hunt (oceanographer)|Dr. John Hunt]] of the [[Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution]] pointed out in a 1981 paper that over 70 percent of the reserves in the world are associated with visible [[seep|macroseepages]], and many oil fields are found due to natural [[seep]]s. Offshore exploration and extraction of oil disturbs the surrounding marine environment.<ref>[http://www.offshore-environment.com/discharges.html Waste discharges during the offshore oil and gas activity] by Stanislave Patin, tr. Elena Cascio</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===Oil spills===
| |
| {{Further|Oil spill|List of oil spills}}
| |
| [[File:Oil-spill.jpg|thumb|Kelp after an oil spill]]
| |
| [[File:Oil Slick in the Timor Sea September-2009.jpg|thumb|Oil Sick from the [[Montara oil spill]] in the Timor Sea, September, 2009]]
| |
| [[File:PrestigeVolunteersInGaliciaCoast.jpg|thumb|Volunteers cleaning up the aftermath of the [[Prestige oil spill]]]]
| |
| | |
| Crude oil and refined fuel [[Oil spill|spills]] from [[tanker (ship)|tanker ship]] accidents have damaged natural [[ecosystem]]s in [[Alaska]], the [[Gulf of Mexico]], the [[Galapagos Islands]], France and many [[List of oil spills|other places]].
| |
| | |
| The quantity of oil spilled during accidents has ranged from a few hundred tons to several hundred thousand tons (e.g., [[Bp oil spill|Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill]], [[Atlantic Empress]], [[Amoco Cadiz]]). Smaller spills have already proven to have a great impact on ecosystems, such as the [[Exxon Valdez oil spill]]
| |
| | |
| Oil spills at sea are generally much more damaging than those on land, since they can spread for hundreds of nautical miles in a thin [[oil slick]] which can cover beaches with a thin coating of oil. This can kill sea birds, mammals, shellfish and other organisms it coats. Oil spills on land are more readily containable if a makeshift earth dam can be rapidly [[bulldozed]] around the spill site before most of the oil escapes, and land animals can avoid the oil more easily.
| |
| | |
| Control of oil spills is difficult, requires ad hoc methods, and often a large amount of manpower. The dropping of bombs and incendiary devices from aircraft on {{SS|Torrey Canyon}} wreck produced poor results;<ref>[[Torrey Canyon oil spill|Torrey Canyon bombing by the Navy and RAF]]</ref> modern techniques would include pumping the oil from the wreck, like in the [[Prestige oil spill]] or the [[Erika (tanker)|Erika]] oil spill.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.total.com/en/group/news/special_report_erika/erika_measures_total/erika_pumping_cargo_11379.htm |title=Pumping of the Erika cargo |publisher=Total.com |accessdate=August 29, 2010}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| Though crude oil is predominantly composed of various hydrocarbons, certain nitrogen heterocylic compounds, such as [[pyridine]], [[picoline]], and [[quinoline]] are reported as contaminants associated with crude oil, as well as facilities processing oil shale or coal, and have also been found at legacy wood treatment sites. These compounds have a very high water solubility, and thus tend to dissolve and move with water. Certain naturally occurring bacteria, such as [[Micrococcus]], [[Arthrobacter]], and [[Rhodococcus]] have been shown to degrade these contaminants.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Sims |first1=Gerald K. |last2= O'Loughlin |first2= Edward J. |last3= Crawford |first3= Ronald L. |year= 1989 |title= Degradation of pyridines in the environment |journal= Critical Reviews in Environmental Control |volume= 19 |issue= 4 |pages= 309–340 |doi= 10.1080/10643388909388372 |publisher= Taylor & Francis}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===Tarballs===
| |
| A tarball is a blob of crude oil (not to be confused with [[tar]], which is typically derived from pine trees rather than petroleum) which has been weathered after floating in the ocean. Tarballs are an aquatic [[pollutant]] in most environments, although they can occur naturally, for example, in the Santa Barbara Channel of California.<ref name=itah>{{cite journal |author= Itah A. Y. and Essien J. P. |date = Oct 2005 |title= Growth Profile and Hydrocarbonoclastic Potential of Microorganisms Isolated from Tarballs in the Bight of Bonny, Nigeria |journal= World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology |volume= 21 |issue= 6–7 |pages= 1317–1322 |doi= 10.1007/s11274-004-6694-z |publisher= Kluwer Academic}}</ref><ref name="hostettler">Frances D. Hostettler, Robert J. Rosenbauer, Thomas D. Lorenson, Jennifer Dougherty, Geochemical characterization of tarballs on beaches along the California coast. Part I-- Shallow seepage impacting the Santa Barbara Channel Islands, Santa Cruz, Santa Rosa and San Miguel, Organic Geochemistry, Volume 35, Issue 6, June 2004, Pages 725–746, ISSN 0146-6380, {{doi|10.1016/j.orggeochem.2004.01.022}}.</ref> Their concentration and features have been used to assess the extent of [[oil spills]]. Their composition can be used to identify their sources of origin,<ref>{{cite journal |author= Knap Anthony H, Burns Kathryn A, Dawson Rodger, Ehrhardt Manfred, and Palmork Karsten H |date= Dec 1984 |title= Dissolved/dispersed hydrocarbons, tarballs and the surface microlayer: Experiences from an IOC/UNEP Workshop in Bermuda |journal= Marine Pollution Bulletin |volume= 17 |issue= 7|pages= 313–319 |doi= 10.1016/0025-326X(86)90217-1 }}</ref><ref>Zhendi Wang, Merv Fingas, Michael Landriault, Lise Sigouin, Bill Castle, David Hostetter, Dachung Zhang, Brad Spencer, "Identification and Linkage of Tarballs from the Coasts of Vancouver Island and Northern California Using GC/MS and Isotopic Techniques ''Journal of High Resolution Chromatography'', Volume 21 Issue 7, Pages 383–395, {{doi|10.1002/(SICI)1521-4168(19980701)21:7<383::AID-JHRC383>3.0.CO;2–3}}</ref> and tarballs themselves may be dispersed over long distances by deep sea currents.<ref name="hostettler" /> They are slowly decomposed by bacteria, including ''[[Chromobacterium violaceum]]'', ''[[Cladosporium resinae]]'', ''[[Bacillus submarinus]]'', ''[[Micrococcus varians]]'', ''[[Pseudomonas aeruginosa]]'', ''[[Candida marina]]'' and ''[[Saccharomyces estuari]]''.<ref name=itah />
| |
| | |
| ===Whales===
| |
| James S. Robbins has argued that the advent of petroleum-refined kerosene saved some species of great whales from [[extinction]] by providing an inexpensive substitute for [[whale oil]], thus eliminating the economic imperative for open-boat [[whaling]].<ref>[http://newscotland1398.ca/99/gesner-whales.html How Capitalism Saved the Whales] by James S. Robbins, ''The Freeman'', August, 1992.</ref>
| |
| | |
| ==Alternatives to petroleum==
| |
| {{Further|Renewable energy}}
| |
| | |
| In the United States in 2007 about 70 percent of petroleum was used for transportation (e.g. petrol, diesel, jet fuel), 24 percent by industry (e.g. production of plastics), 5 percent for residential and commercial uses, and 2 percent for electricity production.<ref>[http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/aer/pecss_diagram.html "U.S. Primary Energy Consumption by Source and Sector, 2007"]. Energy Information Administration</ref> Outside of the US, a higher proportion of petroleum tends to be used for electricity.<ref>[http://www.rrcap.unep.org/md/malereport/2006/Proceeding/II_RCS3/Att5_Initiatives/RSC3_2-5_Power%20Sector%20.ppt needtitle] UN Energy Program</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===Alternatives to petroleum-based vehicle fuels===
| |
| [[File:Piracicaba 10 2008 151 Gast station selling four fuels.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Typical [[Brazil]]ian fuel station with four [[alternative fuel]]s for sale: [[diesel fuel|diesel]] (B3), [[gasohol]] ([[Gasohol#E20, E25|E25]]), [[ethanol fuel|neat ethanol]] ([[gasohol#E100|E100]]), and [[compressed natural gas]] (CNG).]]
| |
| {{Main|Alternative fuel vehicle|Hydrogen economy|Green vehicle}}
| |
| [[Alternative fuel vehicle]]s refers to both:
| |
| * vehicles that use [[alternative fuel]]s used in standard or modified [[internal combustion engine]]s such as [[natural gas vehicle]]s, [[neat ethanol vehicle]]s, [[flexible-fuel vehicle]]s, [[biodiesel]]-powered vehicles, and [[Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle|hydrogen vehicles]].
| |
| * vehicles with advanced propulsion systems that reduce or substitute petroleum use such as [[battery electric vehicle]]s, [[plug-in hybrid electric vehicle]]s, [[hybrid electric vehicle]]s, and [[hydrogen vehicle|hydrogen]] [[fuel cell vehicle]]s.
| |
| | |
| ===Alternatives to using oil in industry===
| |
| {{Expand section|date=July 2008}}
| |
| Biological feedstocks do exist for industrial uses such as [[Bioplastic]] production.<ref>[http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/businesstechnology/2003646852_bioprocessing02.html Bioprocessing] ''Seattle Times'' (2003)</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===Alternatives to burning petroleum for electricity===
| |
| {{Main|Alternative energy|Nuclear power|Renewable energy}}
| |
| In oil producing countries with little refinery capacity, oil is sometimes burned to produce electricity. [[Renewable energy]] technologies such as [[solar power]], [[wind power]], [[micro hydro]], [[biomass]] and [[biofuel]]s are used, but the primary alternatives remain large-scale [[hydroelectricity]], [[nuclear power|nuclear]] and coal-fired generation.
| |
| | |
| ==Future of petroleum production==
| |
| [[Image:US Crude Oil Production and Imports.svg|right|thumb|200px|US oil production and imports, 1910-2012.]]
| |
| Consumption in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries has been abundantly pushed by automobile growth; the [[1980s oil glut|1985–2003 oil glut]] even fueled the sales of low economy vehicles in [[OECD]] countries. The 2008 economic crisis seems to have had some impact on the sales of such vehicles; still, the 2008 oil consumption shows a small increase. The [[BRIC]] countries might also kick in, as China briefly was the first automobile market in December 2009.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7879372.stm |title= China's car industry overtakes US |author= Chris Hogg |date= February 10, 2009 |work=BBC News}}</ref> The immediate outlook still hints upwards. In the long term, uncertainties linger; the [[OPEC]] believes that the OECD countries will push low consumption policies at some point in the future; when that happens, it will definitely curb oil sales, and both OPEC and [[Energy Information Administration|EIA]] kept lowering their 2020 consumption estimates during the past 5 years.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.opec.org/library/World%20Oil%20Outlook/pdf/WOO2008.pdf |title= World Oil Outlook 2008 |author= OPEC Secretariat |year= 2008}}{{dead link|date=August 2010}}</ref> Oil products are more and more in competition with alternative sources, mainly coal and natural gas, both cheaper sources.
| |
| Production will also face an increasingly complex situation; while OPEC countries still have large reserves at low production prices, newly found reservoirs often lead to higher prices; offshore giants such as [[Tupi oil field|Tupi]], Guara and [[Tiber oilfield|Tiber]] demand high investments and ever-increasing technological abilities. Subsalt reservoirs such as Tupi were unknown in the twentieth century, mainly because the industry was unable to probe them. [[Enhanced Oil Recovery]] (EOR) techniques (example: [[Daqing Field|DaQing]], China<ref>{{cite web |url= http://en.ce.cn/Insight/200610/16/t20061016_8980162.shtml |title= Daqing Oilfield rejuvenated by virtue of technology |author= Ni Weiling |date= October 16, 2006}}</ref> ) will continue to play a major role in increasing the world's recoverable oil.
| |
| | |
| ===Peak oil===
| |
| {{Main|Peak oil}}
| |
| [[File:GlobalPeakOilForecast.jpg|thumb|left|Global Peak Oil forecast]]
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| Peak oil is the projection that future petroleum production (whether for individual oil wells, entire oil fields, whole countries, or worldwide production) will eventually peak and then decline at a similar rate to the rate of increase before the peak as these reserves are exhausted. The peak of oil discoveries was in 1965, and oil production per year has surpassed oil discoveries every year since 1980.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://energycrisis.org/de/lecture.html |title= Peak Oil Presentation at the Technical University of Clausthal |author= Campbell CJ |date= December 2000}}</ref>
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| [[Marion King Hubbert|Hubbert]] applied his theory to accurately predict the peak of U.S. oil production at a date between 1966 and 1970. This prediction was based on data available at the time of his publication in 1956. In the same paper, Hubbert predicts world peak oil in "half a century" after his publication, which would be 2006.<ref>{{cite journal |url= http://www.hubbertpeak.com/Hubbert/1956/1956.pdf |last1= Hubbert |first1= Marion King |last2= Shell Development Company |title= Nuclear energy and the fossil fuels |journal= Drilling and Production Practice |volume= 95 |publisher= American Petroleum Institute |location= Washington, DC |year= 1956}}</ref>
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| It is difficult to predict the oil peak in any given region, due to the lack of knowledge and/or transparency in accounting of global oil reserves.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iags.org/n0331043.htm |title=New study raises doubts about Saudi oil reserves |publisher=Iags.org |date=March 31, 2004 |accessdate=August 29, 2010}}</ref> Scientists and researchers from Oxford University argue that official figures are inflated because OPEC members over-reported reserves in the 1980s when competing for global market share.<ref>"[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/energy/oilandgas/7500669/Oil-reserves-exaggerated-by-one-third.html Oil reserves 'exaggerated by one third']". Telegraph. March 22, 2010.</ref> Based on available production data, proponents have previously predicted the peak for the world to be in years 1989, 1995, or 1995–2000. Some of these predictions date from before the recession of the early 1980s, and the consequent reduction in global consumption, the effect of which was to delay the date of any peak by several years. Just as the 1971 U.S. peak in oil production was only clearly recognized after the fact, a peak in world production will be difficult to discern until production clearly drops off.<ref>[http://www.oildecline.com/ Peak Oil Info and Strategies] "The only uncertainty about peak oil is the time scale, which is difficult to predict accurately."</ref> The peak is also a moving target as it is now measured as "liquids", which includes synthetic fuels, instead of just conventional oil.<ref>[http://www.peakoil.net/files/Peak_Oil_the_eventual_end.pdf "Peak Oil": The Eventual End of the Oil Age] pg. 12</ref>
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| The [[International Energy Agency]] (IEA) said in 2010 that production of conventional crude oil had peaked in 2006 at 70 MBBL/d, then flattened at 68 or 69 thereafter.<ref>"[http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/11/14/is-peak-oil-behind-us/?partner=rss&emc=rss Is 'Peak Oil' Behind Us?]". ''The New York Times''. November 14, 2010</ref><ref>"[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/energy/2010/11/101109-peak-oil-iea-world-energy-outlook/ Has the World Already Passed "Peak Oil"? ]". ''National Geographic News''. November 9, 2010</ref> Since virtually all economic sectors rely heavily on petroleum, [[peak oil]], if it were to occur, could lead to a "partial or complete failure of markets".<ref>"[http://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/0,1518,715138,00.html Military Study Warns of a Potentially Drastic Oil Crisis]". ''[[Der Spiegel|Spiegel Online]]''. September 1, 2010.</ref>
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| ==See also==
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| {{Portal|Energy}}
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| * [[Crude oil assay]]
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| * [[Barrel of oil equivalent]]
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| * [[Fuel]]
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| * [[Filling station]]
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| * [[Gas oil ratio]]
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| * [[Gasoline]]
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| * [[Gross domestic product per barrel]]
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| * [[Hydrocarbon]]
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| * [[List of countries by proven oil reserves]]
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| * [[List of oil fields]]
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| * [[List of petroleum companies]]
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| * [[Manure-derived synthetic crude oil]]
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| * [[Oil burden]]
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| * [[Petroleum geology]]
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| * [[Thermal depolymerization]]
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| * [[Total petroleum hydrocarbon]]
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| * [[Waste oil]]
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| * [[Tar Sands]]
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| ==Notes==
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| <!-- No longer referenced: #{{note|Kenney2002}} {{cite journal|author=Kenney, J., Kutcherov, V., Bendeliani, N. and Alekseev, V.|title= The evolution of multicomponent systems at high pressures: VI. The thermodynamic stability of the hydrogen–carbon system: The genesis of hydrocarbons and the origin of petroleum|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=99|year=2002|pages=10976–10981|doi= 10.1073/pnas.172376899|pmid= 12177438|issue=17|pmc=123195|arxiv = physics/0505003 |bibcode = 2002PNAS...9910976K }}-->
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| {{Reflist|3}}
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| ==References==
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| * {{cite book|editor=Akiner, Shirin; Aldis, Anne|title=The Caspian: Politics, Energy and Security|publisher=Routledge|year=2004|location=New York|isbn=978-0-7007-0501-6}}
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| * {{cite book |authorlink=Georg Bauer |author=Bauer Georg, Bandy Mark Chance (tr.), Bandy Jean A.(tr.) |title=De Natura Fossilium |language={{la icon}} |work=vi |year=1546}} translated 1955
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| * {{Cite book| last = Hyne| first = Norman J.| title = Nontechnical Guide to Petroleum Geology, Exploration, Drilling, and Production| year = 2001| publisher = PennWell Corporation| isbn = 0-87814-823-X}}
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| * {{cite book|last=Mabro|first=Robert|coauthors=Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries|title=Oil in the 21st century: issues, challenges and opportunities|publisher=Oxford Press|year=2006|isbn=0-19-920738-0, 9780199207381}}
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| * {{cite book|title=The Age of Oil: What They Don't Want You to Know About the World's Most Controversial Resource|page=15|author=Maugeri, Leonardo|year=2005|publisher=Globe Pequot|location=Guilford, CT|isbn=978-1-59921-118-3|url=http://books.google.com/?id=mzHt5hYeXlIC}}
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| * {{Cite book| last = Speight| first = James G.| title = The Chemistry and Technology of Petroleum| year = 1999| publisher = Marcel Dekker| isbn = 0-8247-0217-4}}
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| * {{Cite book|editor=Speight, James G; Ancheyta, Jorge|title = Hydroprocessing of Heavy Oils and Residua| year = 2007| publisher = CRC Press| isbn = 0-8493-7419-7}}
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| * {{Cite book| last = Vassiliou| first = Marius| title = Historical Dictionary of the Petroleum Industry| year = 2009| publisher = Scarecrow Press (Rowman & Littlefield)| isbn = 0-8108-5993-9}}
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| ==Further reading==
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| * Khavari, Farid A. (1990). ''Oil and Islam: the Ticking Bomb''. First ed. Malibu, Calif.: Roundtable Publications. viii, 277 p., ill. with maps and charts. ISBN 0-915677-55-5
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| ==External links==
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| {{Commons|Petroleum}}
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| * {{dmoz|Science/Earth_Sciences/Geology/Petroleum|Petroleum}}
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| * [http://www.petroleumonline.com/ Petroleum Online e-Learning resource from IHRDC]
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| * [http://www.whichcountry.co/top-10-largest-oil-producing-countries-in-the-world/ Largest Oil producers in the World]
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| * [http://www.forexinfo.info/In-depth-Brent-and-WTI-crude-oil In-depth: Brent and WTI crude oil. What makes price difference]
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| * [http://www.eia.doe.gov/oil_gas/petroleum/info_glance/petroleum.html U.S. Energy Information Administration]
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| ** [http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/contents.html U.S. Department of Energy EIA – World supply and consumption]
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| ** [http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/energy_in_brief/world_oil_market.cfm Who are the major players supplying the world oil market?]
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| * [http://www.api.org/ American Petroleum Institute] – the trade association of the US oil industry.
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| * [http://www.iea.org/Textbase/stats/surveys/oilsurv.pdf Oil survey – [[OECD]] [[International Energy Agency]] ]
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| * [http://www.petrostrategies.org/Learning_Center/learning_center.htm Oil and Gas Industry Learning Center – information on oil and gas processes]
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| * [http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/search/r?dbs+hsdb:@term+@na+@rel+Crude+oil U.S. National Library of Medicine: Hazardous Substances Databank – Crude Oil]
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| *[http://www.bp.com/sectionbodycopy.do?categoryId=7500&contentId=7068481: BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2012]
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| *''[http://www.abc.net.au/science/crude/ Crude]'': 2007 Australian Broadcasting Corporation documentary [3 x 30 minutes] about the formation of oil, and humanity's use of it
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| {{Petroleum industry}}
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| [[Category:Oils]]
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| [[Category:Petroleum| ]]
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| [[Category:Chemical mixtures]]
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| [[Category:Fuels]]
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| [[Category:Glassforming liquids and melts]]
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