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| | Avoid sunscreen during this period, too, as the chemicals in sunscreens may irritate healing scalp and follicles; just after your hair transplant, your immune system may be a little overactive and you can have an allergic response to chemicals. Often this is the place doctors start with treatments, and they frequently prescribe synthetic hormones in an effort to restore balance. When water backs up behind the dam, it creates a body of water, which then creates the reservoir. Large gaps require floor boards to be replaced when you are replacing other damaged hardwood. Security and wellbeing dangers - H2o harm may possibly also pose numerous well being difficulties. <br><br>Pertaining to decontamination, numerous EPA authorized chemicals will have to be used. After all, water build-up often results in mold, which is harmful to one. Trees help check atmospheric carbon dioxide; large scale afforestation can curb the problems caused due to burning of fossil fuels, industrialization and so forth. Article Source: Corkern is a writer and promoter of. You want to make sure you dry the entire floor out as much as possible. <br><br>Examine by way of your insurance policy and you will locate that there is a clause that will make it possible for you to employ quite much any business as lengthy as it has a license to operate. You can sell it on e - Bay, because there are companies out there that do know how to fix broken i - Pads, and they're very interested in buying broken units to try to salvage parts. Scattered over a vast area, the Necropolis is best enjoyed in a series of visits with Egypt travel information guide. Even if you change the position of objects from time to time, your bar will look like new. Deluge solutions deliver large amounts of water quickly. <br><br>123 Cleanup calls their clients within seconds of them completing the free service request form on their website. Damage can occur through water and bacteria settling in to your household items. Well casings should be installed brand new and compliant with the ASTM specifications. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates that a single acre of wetlands can hold up to 1. There will be moisture sensors that will be activated in the case of i - Pod Touch water damage, and so if you know that your i - Pod Touch has incurred water damage you are not going to be able to have it repaired at the cost of Apple. <br><br>If you beloved this article therefore you would like to collect more info regarding [http://houstonroofingcontractors.net Houston roofing company] generously visit the site. There is also the possibility of system failure related to technology, electrical power or communication systems. If you must keep one or more servers up during a long-term power outage, consider a generator. Members of this industry include carpet and rug cleaners, odor control specialists, water damage restorers and mold remediation professionals, upholstery cleaners, and master fire and smoker restorers. Since different materials react differently to various corrosive agents, knowing the type of materials used can give clues to the vulnerability of the structure to corrosion. Due to its best selling price and excellent worldwide customer support i - Pod recovery software has become popular in international market. |
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| [[File:Simple electromagnet2.gif|thumb|A simple electromagnet consisting of a coil of insulated wire wrapped around an iron core. The strength of magnetic field generated is proportional to the amount of current.]]
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| [[File:Electromagnetism.svg|thumb|Current (I) through a wire produces a magnetic field (B). The field is oriented according to the [[right hand grip rule|right-hand grip rule]].]]
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| [[File:VFPt Solenoid correct2.svg|thumb|Magnetic field produced by a [[solenoid]] (coil of wire). This drawing shows a cross section through the center of the coil. The crosses are wires in which current is moving into the page; the dots are wires in which current is moving up out of the page.]]
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| | |
| An '''electromagnet''' is a type of [[magnet]] in which the [[magnetic field]] is produced by [[electric current]]. The magnetic field disappears when the current is turned off. Electromagnets are widely used as components of other electrical devices, such as [[Electric motor|motors]], [[Electric generator|generator]]s, [[relay]]s, [[loudspeaker]]s, [[hard disk]]s, [[Magnetic resonance imaging|MRI machines]], scientific instruments, and [[magnetic separation]] equipment, as well as being employed as industrial lifting electromagnets for picking up and moving heavy iron objects like scrap iron.
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| | |
| An electric current flowing in a wire creates a magnetic field around the wire (see drawing below). To concentrate the magnetic field, in an electromagnet the wire is wound into a [[coil]] with many turns of wire lying side by side. The magnetic field of all the turns of wire passes through the center of the coil, creating a strong magnetic field there. A coil forming the shape of a straight tube (a [[helix]]) is called a [[solenoid]].
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| Much stronger magnetic fields can be produced if a "[[magnetic core|core]]" of [[ferromagnetism|ferromagnetic]] material, such as soft [[iron]], is placed inside the coil. The ferromagnetic core increases the magnetic field to thousands of times the strength of the field of the coil alone, due to the high [[Permeability (electromagnetism)|magnetic permeability]] μ of the ferromagnetic material. This is called a ferromagnetic-core or iron-core electromagnet.
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| | |
| The direction of the magnetic field through a coil of wire can be found from a form of the [[Right hand grip rule|right-hand rule]].<ref>{{cite web
| |
| | last = Olson
| |
| | first = Andrew
| |
| | title = Right hand rules
| |
| | work = Science fair project resources
| |
| | publisher = Science Buddies
| |
| | year = 2008
| |
| | url = http://www.ece.unb.ca/Courses/EE2683/AW/hand_rules.pdf
| |
| | accessdate = 2008-08-11}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| |
| | last = Wilson
| |
| | first = Adam
| |
| | title = Hand Rules
| |
| | work = Course outline, EE2683 Electric Circuits and Machines
| |
| | publisher = Faculty of Engineering, Univ. of New Brunswick
| |
| | year = 2008
| |
| | url = http://www.ece.unb.ca/Courses/EE2683/AW/hand_rules.pdf
| |
| | accessdate = 2008-08-11}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| |
| | last = Gussow
| |
| | first = Milton
| |
| | title = Schaum's Outline of Theory and Problems of Basic Electricity
| |
| | publisher = McGraw-Hill
| |
| | year = 1983
| |
| | location = New York
| |
| | pages = 166
| |
| | url = http://books.google.com/?id=T8t4MwtiLioC&pg=PA166
| |
| | isbn =978-0-07-025240-0 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| |
| | last = Millikin
| |
| | first = Robert
| |
| | coauthors = Edwin Bishop
| |
| | title = Elements of Electricity
| |
| | publisher = American Technical Society
| |
| | year = 1917
| |
| | location = Chicago
| |
| | pages = 125
| |
| | url = http://books.google.com/?id=dZM3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA125}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| |
| | last = Fleming
| |
| | first = John Ambrose
| |
| | title = Short Lectures to Electrical Artisans, 4th Ed.
| |
| | publisher = E.& F. N. Spon
| |
| | year = 1892
| |
| | location = London
| |
| | pages = 38–40
| |
| | url = http://books.google.com/?id=wzdHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA38}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| |
| | last = Fleming
| |
| | first = John Ambrose
| |
| | title = Magnets and Electric Currents, 2nd Edition
| |
| | publisher = E.& F. N. Spon
| |
| | year = 1902
| |
| | location = London
| |
| | pages = 173–174
| |
| | url = http://books.google.com/?id=ASUYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA173}}</ref> If the fingers of the right hand are curled around the coil in the direction of current flow ([[conventional current]], flow of [[positive charge]]) through the windings, the thumb points in the direction of the field inside the coil. The side of the magnet that the field lines emerge from is defined to be the ''north pole''.
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| | |
| The main advantage of an electromagnet over a [[permanent magnet]] is that the magnetic field can be rapidly manipulated over a wide range by controlling the amount of electric current. However, a continuous supply of electrical energy is required to maintain the field.
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| | |
| == How the iron core works ==
| |
| The material of the [[Magnetic core|core]] of the magnet (usually [[iron]]) is composed of small regions called [[magnetic domains]] that act like tiny magnets (see [[ferromagnetism]]). Before the current in the electromagnet is turned on, the domains in the iron core point in random directions, so their tiny magnetic fields cancel each other out, and the iron has no large scale magnetic field. When a current is passed through the wire wrapped around the iron, its magnetic field penetrates the iron, and causes the domains to turn, aligning parallel to the magnetic field, so their tiny magnetic fields add to the wire's field, creating a large magnetic field that extends into the space around the magnet. The larger the current passed through the wire coil, the more the domains align, and the stronger the magnetic field is. Finally all the domains are lined up, and further increases in current only cause slight increases in the magnetic field: this phenomenon is called [[Saturation (magnetic)|saturation]].
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| | |
| When the current in the coil is turned off, most of the domains lose alignment and return to a random state and the field disappears. However some of the alignment persists, because the domains have difficulty turning their direction of magnetization, leaving the core a weak permanent magnet. This phenomenon is called [[hysteresis]] and the remaining magnetic field is called [[remanence|remanent magnetism]]. The residual magnetization of the core can be removed by [[degaussing]].
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| | |
| {{multiple image
| |
| |align = left
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| |image1 = Fermilab - 400 MeV Lambertson Magnet.jpg
| |
| |width1 = 160
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| |caption1 = Electromagnet used in the [[Tevatron]] [[particle accelerator]], Fermilab, USA
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| |image2 = AGEM5520.jpg
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| |width2 = 113
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| |caption2 = Laboratory electromagnet. Produces 2 T field with 20 A current.
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| |image3 = ICP-SFMS Magnet 1.JPG
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| |width3 = 80
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| |caption3 = Magnet in a [[mass spectrometer]]
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| |image4 = Stator eines Universalmotor.JPG
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| |width4 = 140
| |
| |caption4 = AC electromagnet on the [[stator]] of an [[electric motor]]
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| |image5 = DoorBell 001.jpg
| |
| |width5 = 205
| |
| |caption5 = Magnets in an [[electric bell]]
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| }}
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| {{-}}
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| | |
| == History ==
| |
| {{multiple image
| |
| | align = right
| |
| | direction = horizontal
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| | header =
| |
| | image1 = Sturgeon electromagnet.png
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| | caption1 = Sturgeon's electromagnet, 1824
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| | width1 = 150
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| | image2 = Joseph Henry electromagnet.png
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| | caption2 = One of Henry's electromagnets that could lift hundreds of pounds, 1830s
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| | width2 = 163
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| | footer =
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| }}
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| | |
| Danish scientist [[Hans Christian Ørsted]] discovered in 1820 that electric currents create magnetic fields. British scientist [[William Sturgeon]] invented the electromagnet in 1824.<ref>{{cite journal
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| | last = Sturgeon
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| | first = W.
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| | title = Improved Electro Magnetic Apparatus
| |
| | journal = Trans. Royal Society of Arts, Manufactures, & Commerce
| |
| | volume = 43
| |
| | issue =
| |
| | pages = 37–52
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| | publisher =
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| | location = London
| |
| | year = 1825
| |
| | url =
| |
| | doi =
| |
| | id =
| |
| | accessdate = }} cited in {{cite book
| |
| | last = Miller
| |
| | first = T.J.E
| |
| | authorlink =
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| | coauthors =
| |
| | title = Electronic Control of Switched Reluctance Machines
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| | publisher = Newnes
| |
| | year = 2001
| |
| | location =
| |
| | pages = 7
| |
| | url = http://books.google.com/?id=E8VroIWyjB8C&pg=PA7
| |
| | doi =
| |
| | id =
| |
| | isbn = 0-7506-5073-7}}</ref><ref>Windelspecht, Michael. [http://books.google.com/books?id=hX1jPbJVSu4C&pg=PR22&lpg=PR22&dq=%22William+Sturgeon%22+electromagnet+1825&source=web&ots=BhXj3j9j4t&sig=6gI6QNC-Yc5YMCY5RpEE43eIfgU&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=9&ct=result#PPR22,M1 Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the 19th Century], xxii, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003, ISBN 0-313-31969-3.</ref> His first electromagnet was a horseshoe-shaped piece of iron that was wrapped with about 18 turns of bare copper wire ([[Insulator (electricity)|insulated]] wire didn't exist yet). The iron was [[varnish]]ed to insulate it from the windings. When a current was passed through the coil, the iron became magnetized and attracted other pieces of iron; when the current was stopped, it lost magnetization. Sturgeon displayed its power by showing that although it only weighed seven ounces (roughly 200 grams), it could lift nine pounds (roughly 4 kilos) when the current of a single-cell battery was applied. However, Sturgeon's magnets were weak because the uninsulated wire he used could only be wrapped in a single spaced out layer around the core, limiting the number of turns.
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| Beginning in 1827, US scientist [[Joseph Henry]] systematically improved and popularized the electromagnet.<ref>{{cite web
| |
| | last = Sherman
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| | first = Roger
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| | authorlink =
| |
| | coauthors =
| |
| | title = Joseph Henry's contributions to the electromagnet and the electric motor
| |
| | work = The Joseph Henry Papers
| |
| | publisher = The Smithsonian Institution
| |
| | year = 2007
| |
| | url = http://siarchives.si.edu/history/jhp/joseph21.htm
| |
| | doi =
| |
| | accessdate = 2008-08-27}}</ref> By using wire insulated by silk thread he was able to wind multiple layers of wire on cores, creating powerful magnets with thousands of turns of wire, including one that could support {{convert|2063|lb|kg|abbr=on}}. The first major use for electromagnets was in [[telegraph sounder]]s.
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| | |
| The magnetic domain theory of how ferromagnetic cores work was first proposed in 1906 by French physicist [[Pierre-Ernest Weiss]], and the detailed modern quantum mechanical theory of ferromagnetism was worked out in the 1920s by [[Werner Heisenberg]], [[Lev Landau]], [[Felix Bloch]] and others.
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| | |
| == Uses of electromagnets ==
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| [[File:Industrial lifting magnet.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Industrial electromagnet lifting scrap iron, 1914]]
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| | |
| Electromagnets are very widely used in electric and [[electromechanical]] devices, including:
| |
| * [[electric motor|Motor]]s and [[Electric generator|generators]]
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| * [[Transformer]]s
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| * [[Relay]]s, including [[reed relay]]s originally used in [[telephone exchange]]s
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| * [[Electric bell]]s and buzzers
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| * [[Loudspeaker]]s and [[earphone]]s
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| * [[Actuator]]s
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| * [[Magnetic recording]] and data storage equipment: [[tape recorder]]s, [[VCR]]s, [[hard disk]]s
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| * Scientific instruments such as [[MRI]] machines and [[mass spectrometer]]s
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| * [[Particle accelerator]]s
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| * [[Magnetic lock]]s
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| * [[Magnetic separation]] equipment, used for separating magnetic from nonmagnetic material, for example separating ferrous metal from other material in scrap.
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| * Industrial lifting magnets
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| * [[Electromagnetic suspension]] used for MAGLEV trains
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| | |
| == Analysis of ferromagnetic electromagnets ==
| |
| '''For definitions of the variables below, see box at end of article.'''
| |
| | |
| The magnetic field of electromagnets in the general case is given by [[Ampere's Law]]:
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| | |
| :<math>\int \mathbf{J}\cdot d\mathbf{A} = \oint \mathbf{H}\cdot d\mathbf{l}</math>
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| | |
| which says that the integral of the magnetizing field H around any closed loop of the field is equal to the sum of the current flowing through the loop. Another equation used, that gives the magnetic field due to each small segment of current, is the [[Biot-Savart law]]. Computing the magnetic field and force exerted by ferromagnetic materials is difficult for two reasons. First, because the strength of the field varies from point to point in a complicated way, particularly outside the core and in air gaps, where ''fringing fields'' and ''[[leakage flux]]'' must be considered. Second, because the magnetic field B and force are [[nonlinear]] functions of the current, depending on the nonlinear relation between B and H for the particular core material used. For precise calculations, computer programs that can produce a model of the magnetic field using the [[finite element method]] are employed. | |
| | |
| === Magnetic circuit – the constant ''B'' field approximation ===
| |
| [[Image:Electromagnet with gap.svg|thumb|upright=1.7|Magnetic field ''(<span style="color:green;">green</span>)'' of a typical electromagnet, with the iron core ''C'' forming a closed loop with two air gaps ''G'' in it.<br />
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| ''B'' – magnetic field in the core<br />
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| ''B<sub>F</sub>'' – "fringing fields". In the gaps ''G'' the magnetic field lines "bulge" out, so the field strength is less than in the core: ''B<sub>F</sub>'' < ''B''<br />
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| ''B<sub>L</sub>'' – [[leakage flux]]; magnetic field lines which don't follow complete magnetic circuit<br />
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| ''L'' – average length of the magnetic circuit used in eq. 1 below. It is the sum of the length ''L<sub>core</sub>'' in the iron core pieces and the length ''L<sub>gap</sub>'' in the air gaps ''G''.<br />
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| Both the leakage flux and the fringing fields get larger as the gaps are increased, reducing the force exerted by the magnet. ]]
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| | |
| In many practical applications of electromagnets, such as motors, generators, transformers, lifting magnets, and loudspeakers, the iron core is in the form of a loop or [[magnetic circuit]], possibly broken by a few narrow air gaps. This is because the magnetic field lines are in the form of closed loops. Iron presents much less "resistance" ([[reluctance]]) to the magnetic field than air, so a stronger field can be obtained if most of the magnetic field's path is within the core.
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| | |
| Since most of the magnetic field is confined within the outlines of the core loop, this allows a simplification of the mathematical analysis. See the drawing at right. A common simplifying assumption satisfied by many electromagnets, which will be used in this section, is that the magnetic field strength ''B'' is constant around the [[magnetic circuit]] and zero outside it. Most of the magnetic field will be concentrated in the core material ''(C)''. Within the core the magnetic field ''(B)'' will be approximately uniform across any cross section, so if in addition the core has roughly constant area throughout its length, the field in the core will be constant. This just leaves the air gaps ''(G)'', if any, between core sections. In the gaps the magnetic field lines are no longer confined by the core, so they 'bulge' out beyond the outlines of the core before curving back to enter the next piece of core material, reducing the field strength in the gap. The bulges ''(B<sub>F</sub>)'' are called ''fringing fields''. However, as long as the length of the gap is smaller than the cross section dimensions of the core, the field in the gap will be approximately the same as in the core. In addition, some of the magnetic field lines ''(B<sub>L</sub>)'' will take 'short cuts' and not pass through the entire core circuit, and thus will not contribute to the force exerted by the magnet. This also includes field lines that encircle the wire windings but do not enter the core. This is called ''[[leakage flux]]''. Therefore the equations in this section are valid for electromagnets for which:
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| #the magnetic circuit is a single loop of core material, possibly broken by a few air gaps
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| #the core has roughly the same cross sectional area throughout its length.
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| #any air gaps between sections of core material are not large compared with the cross sectional dimensions of the core.
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| #there is negligible leakage flux
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| The main nonlinear feature of [[ferromagnetic]] materials is that the B field [[magnetic saturation|saturates]] at a certain value, which is around 1.6 [[Tesla (unit)|teslas]] (T) for most high permeability core steels. The B field increases quickly with increasing current up to that value, but above that value the field levels off and becomes almost constant, regardless of how much current is sent through the windings. So the strength of the magnetic field possible from an iron core electromagnet is limited to around 1.6 to 2 T.{{Citation needed|date=May 2011}}
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| | |
| === Magnetic field created by a current ===
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| The magnetic field created by an electromagnet is proportional to both the number of turns in the winding, ''N'', and the current in the wire, ''I'', hence this product, ''NI'', in [[Ampere (unit)|ampere]]-turns, is given the name [[magnetomotive force]]. For an electromagnet with a single [[magnetic circuit]], of which length ''L''<sub>core</sub> of the magnetic field path is in the core material and length ''L''<sub>gap</sub> is in air gaps, Ampere's Law reduces to:<ref>{{cite book
| |
| | last = Feynman
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| | first = Richard P.
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| | authorlink =
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| | coauthors =
| |
| | title = Lectures on Physics, Vol. 2
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| | publisher = Addison-Wesley
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| | year = 1963
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| | location = New York
| |
| | pages = 36–9 to 36–11, eq. 36-26
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| | isbn = 8185015848}}</ref><ref name="Fitzgerald">{{cite book
| |
| | last = Fitzgerald
| |
| | first = A.
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| | coauthors = Kingsley, Charles and Kusko, Alexander
| |
| | title = Electric Machinery, 3rd Ed.
| |
| | publisher = McGraw-Hill
| |
| | year = 1971
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| | location = USA
| |
| | pages = 3–5}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| :<math>NI = H_{\mathrm{core}} L_{\mathrm{core}} + H_{\mathrm{gap}} L_{\mathrm{gap}}\,</math>
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| :<math>NI = B \left(\frac{L_{\mathrm{core}}}{\mu} + \frac{L_{\mathrm{gap}}}{\mu_0} \right) \qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad (1) \,</math>
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| ::where <math>\mu = B/H\,</math>
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| ::<math>\mu_0 = 4 \pi (10^{-7}) \ \mathrm{N} \cdot \mathrm{A}^{-2}</math> is the permeability of free space (or air); note that <math>\mathrm{A}</math> in this definition is [[amperes]].
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| This is a [[nonlinear equation]], because the [[Magnetic permeability|permeability]] of the core, ''μ'', varies with the magnetic field ''B''. For an exact solution, the value of ''μ'' at the ''B'' value used must be obtained from the core material [[Hysteresis loop|hysteresis curve]]. If ''B'' is unknown, the equation must be solved by [[Numerical analysis|numerical methods]]. However, if the magnetomotive force is well above saturation, so the core material is in saturation, the magnetic field will be approximately the saturation value ''B<sub>sat</sub>'' for the material, and won't vary much with changes in ''NI''. For a closed magnetic circuit (no air gap) most core materials saturate at a magnetomotive force of roughly 800 ampere-turns per meter of flux path.
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| For most core materials, <math>\mu_r = \mu / \mu_0 \approx 2000 - 6000\,</math>.<ref name="Fitzgerald" /> So in equation (1) above, the second term dominates. Therefore, in magnetic circuits with an air gap, the strength of the magnetic field ''B'' depends strongly on the length of the air gap, and the length of the flux path in the core doesn't matter much.
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| | |
| === Force exerted by magnetic field ===
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| The force exerted by an electromagnet on a section of core material is:
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| :<math>F = \frac{B^2 A}{2 \mu_0} \qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad (2) \,</math>
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| The 1.6 T limit on the field mentioned above sets a limit on the [[magnetic pressure|maximum force per unit core area, or pressure]], an iron-core electromagnet can exert; roughly:
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| :<math>\frac{F}{A} = \frac {B_{sat}^2}{2 \mu_0} \approx 1000\ \mathrm{kPa} = 10^6 \mathrm{N/m^2} = 145\ \mathrm{lbf} \cdot \mathrm{in}^{-2}\,</math>
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| <!--(1.6**2)/(2*4*pi*10**-7)-->
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| In more intuitive units it's useful to remember that at 1T the magnetic pressure is approximately 4 atmospheres, or kg/cm<sup>2</sup>.
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| | |
| Given a core geometry, the B field needed for a given force can be calculated from (2); if it comes out to much more than 1.6 T, a larger core must be used.
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| | |
| === Closed magnetic circuit ===
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| [[File:Lifting electromagnet cross section.png|thumb|Cross section of lifting electromagnet like that in above photo, showing cylindrical construction. The windings ''(C)'' are flat copper strips to withstand the Lorentz force of the magnetic field. The core is formed by the thick iron housing ''(D)'' that wraps around the windings.]]
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| For a closed magnetic circuit (no air gap), such as would be found in an electromagnet lifting a piece of iron bridged across its poles, equation (1) becomes:
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| | |
| :<math>B = \frac{NI\mu}{L} \qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad (3) \,</math>
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| | |
| Substituting into (2), the force is:
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| | |
| :<math>F = \frac{\mu^2 N^2 I^2 A}{2\mu_0 L^2} \qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad (4) \,</math>
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| | |
| It can be seen that to maximize the force, a core with a short flux path ''L'' and a wide cross sectional area ''A'' is preferred. To achieve this, in applications like lifting magnets (see photo above) and [[loudspeaker]]s (although loudspeaker magnets need an airgap) a flat cylindrical design is often used. The winding is wrapped around a short wide cylindrical core that forms one pole, and a thick metal housing that wraps around the outside of the windings forms the other part of the magnetic circuit, bringing the magnetic field to the front to form the other pole.
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| | |
| === Force between electromagnets ===
| |
| The above methods are inapplicable when most of the magnetic field path is outside the core. For electromagnets (or permanent magnets) with well defined 'poles' where the field lines emerge from the core, the force between two electromagnets can be found using the 'Gilbert model' which assumes the magnetic field is produced by fictitious 'magnetic charges' on the surface of the poles, with pole strength ''m'' and units of [[Ampere (unit)|Ampere]]-turn meter. Magnetic pole strength of electromagnets can be found from:
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| | |
| <math>m = \frac{NIA}{L}</math>
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| | |
| The force between two poles is:
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| | |
| <math>F = \frac{\mu_0 m_1 m_2}{4\pi r^2}</math>
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| | |
| This model doesn't give the correct magnetic field inside the core, and thus gives incorrect results if the pole of one magnet gets too close to another magnet.
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| | |
| ==Side effects in large electromagnets==
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| There are several side effects which become important in large electromagnets and must be provided for in their design:
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| | |
| ===Ohmic heating===
| |
| [[Image:Current carrying busbars at the LNCMI.jpg|thumb|Large aluminum busbars carrying current into the electromagnets at the [[LNCMI]] (Laboratoire National des Champs Magnétiques Intenses) high field laboratory.]]
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| The only power consumed in a [[Direct current|DC]] electromagnet is due to the [[Electrical resistance|resistance]] of the windings, and is dissipated as heat. Some large electromagnets require cooling water circulating through pipes in the windings to carry off the waste heat.
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| Since the magnetic field is proportional to the product ''NI'', the number of turns in the windings ''N'' and the current ''I'' can be chosen to minimize heat losses, as long as their product is constant. Since the power dissipation, ''P = I<sup>2</sup>R'', increases with the square of the current but only increases approximately linearly with the number of windings, the power lost in the windings can be minimized by reducing ''I'' and increasing the number of turns ''N'' proportionally, or using thicker wire to reduce the resistance. For example halving I and doubling N halves the power loss, as does doubling the area of the wire. In either case, increasing the amount of wire reduces the ohmic losses. For this reason, electromagnets often have a significant thickness of windings.
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| However, the limit to increasing ''N'' or lowering the resistance is that the windings take up more room between the magnet's core pieces. If the area available for the windings is filled up, more turns require going to a smaller diameter of wire, which has higher resistance, which cancels the advantage of using more turns. So in large magnets there is a minimum amount of heat loss that can't be reduced. This increases with the square of the [[magnetic flux]] ''B<sup>2</sup>''.
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| ===Inductive voltage spikes===
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| An electromagnet is a large [[inductor]], and resists changes in the current through its windings. Any sudden changes in the winding current cause large voltage spikes across the windings. This is because when the current through the magnet is increased, such as when it is turned on, energy from the circuit must be stored in the magnetic field. When it is turned off the energy in the field is returned to the circuit.
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| If an ordinary [[switch]] is used to control the winding current, this can cause sparks at the terminals of the switch. This doesn't occur when the magnet is switched on, because the voltage is limited to the power supply voltage. But when it is switched off, the energy in the magnetic field is suddenly returned to the circuit, causing a large voltage spike and an [[Electric arc|arc]] across the switch contacts, which can damage them. With small electromagnets a [[capacitor]] is often used across the contacts, which reduces arcing by temporarily storing the current. More often a [[diode]] is used to prevent voltage spikes by providing a path for the current to recirculate through the winding until the energy is dissipated as heat. The diode is connected across the winding, oriented so it is reverse-biased during steady state operation and doesn't conduct. When the supply voltage is removed, the voltage spike forward-biases the diode and the reactive current continues to flow through the winding, through the diode and back into the winding. A diode used in this way is called a [[flyback diode]].
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| Large electromagnets are usually powered by variable current electronic [[power supply|power supplies]], controlled by a [[microprocessor]], which prevent voltage spikes by accomplishing current changes slowly, in gentle ramps. It may take several minutes to energize or deenergize a large magnet.
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| ===Lorentz forces===
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| In powerful electromagnets, the magnetic field exerts a force on each turn of the windings, due to the [[Lorentz force]] <math>q\mathbf{v}\times\mathbf{B}\,</math> acting on the moving charges within the wire. The Lorentz force is perpendicular to both the axis of the wire and the magnetic field. It can be visualized as a pressure between the [[magnetic field lines]], pushing them apart. It has two effects on an electromagnet's windings:
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| *The field lines within the axis of the coil exert a radial force on each turn of the windings, tending to push them outward in all directions. This causes a [[tensile stress]] in the wire.
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| *The leakage field lines between each turn of the coil exert a repulsive force between adjacent turns, tending to push them apart.
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| The Lorentz forces increase with ''B<sup>2</sup>''. In large electromagnets the windings must be firmly clamped in place, to prevent motion on power-up and power-down from causing [[metal fatigue]] in the windings. In the [[Bitter electromagnet|Bitter]] design, below, used in very high field research magnets, the windings are constructed as flat disks to resist the radial forces, and clamped in an axial direction to resist the axial ones.
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| ===Core losses===
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| In [[alternating current]] (AC) electromagnets, used in [[transformer]]s, [[inductor]]s, and [[AC motor]]s and [[Electric generator|generators]], the magnetic field is constantly changing. This causes energy losses in their [[magnetic core]]s that are dissipated as heat in the core. The losses stem from two processes:
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| *''[[Eddy current]]s'': From [[Faraday's law of induction]], the changing magnetic field induces circulating [[electric current]]s inside nearby conductors, called [[eddy current]]s. The energy in these currents is dissipated as heat in the [[electrical resistance]] of the conductor, so they are a cause of energy loss. Since the magnet's iron core is conductive, and most of the magnetic field is concentrated there, [[eddy current]]s in the core are the major problem. Eddy currents are closed loops of current that flow in planes perpendicular to the magnetic field. The energy dissipated is proportional to the area enclosed by the loop. To prevent them, the cores of AC electromagnets are made of stacks of thin steel sheets, or [[lamination]]s, oriented parallel to the magnetic field, with an insulating coating on the surface. The insulation layers prevent eddy current from flowing between the sheets. Any remaining eddy currents must flow within the cross section of each individual lamination, which reduces losses greatly. Another alternative is to use a [[ferrite core]], which is a nonconductor.
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| *''[[Hysteresis loss]]es'': Reversing the direction of magnetization of the [[magnetic domain]]s in the core material each cycle causes energy loss, because of the [[coercivity]] of the material. These losses are called [[hysteresis]]. The energy lost per cycle is proportional to the area of the [[hysteresis loop]] in the ''BH'' graph. To minimize this loss, magnetic cores used in transformers and other AC electromagnets are made of "soft" low coercivity materials, such as [[silicon steel]] or [[soft ferrite]].
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| The energy loss per cycle of the AC current is constant for each of these processes, so the power loss increases linearly with [[frequency]].
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| == High field electromagnets ==
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| === Superconducting electromagnets ===
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| [[Image:Small small IMG 0836.jpg|thumb|The most powerful electromagnet in the world, the 45 T hybrid Bitter-superconducting magnet at the US National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Tallahassee, Florida, USA]]
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| {{main|Superconducting magnet}}
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| When a magnetic field higher than the ferromagnetic limit of 1.6 T is needed, [[Superconducting magnet|superconducting electromagnets]] can be used. Instead of using ferromagnetic materials, these use [[Superconductivity|superconducting]] windings cooled with [[liquid helium]], which conduct current without [[electrical resistance]]. These allow enormous currents to flow, which generate intense magnetic fields. Superconducting magnets are limited by the field strength at which the winding material ceases to be superconducting. Current designs are limited to 10–20 T, with the current (2009) record of 33.8 T.<ref name="MagnetLab">{{cite web
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| | last =
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| | first =
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| | authorlink =
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| | coauthors =
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| | title = Mag Lab World Records
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| | work = Media Center
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| | publisher = National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, USA
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| | year = 2008
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| | url = http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/mediacenter/factsheets/records.html
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| | doi =
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| | accessdate = 2008-08-31 }}</ref> The necessary refrigeration equipment and [[cryostat]] make them much more expensive than ordinary electromagnets. However, in high power applications this can be offset by lower operating costs, since after startup no power is required for the windings, since no energy is lost to ohmic heating. They are used in [[particle accelerator]]s, [[MRI]] machines, and research.
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| === Bitter electromagnets ===
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| {{main|Bitter electromagnet}}
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| Both iron-core and superconducting electromagnets have limits to the field they can produce. Therefore the most powerful man-made magnetic fields have been generated by ''air-core'' nonsuperconducting electromagnets of a design invented by [[Francis Bitter]] in 1933, called [[Bitter electromagnet]]s.<ref name="MagnetLabU">{{cite web
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| | last = Coyne
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| | first = Kristin
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| | authorlink =
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| | coauthors =
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| | title = Magnets: from Mini to Mighty
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| | work = Magnet Lab U
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| | publisher = National High Magnetic Field Laboratory
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| | year = 2008
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| | url = http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/education/tutorials/magnetacademy/magnets/fullarticle.html
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| | doi =
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| | accessdate = 2008-08-31 }}</ref> Instead of wire windings, a Bitter magnet consists of a [[solenoid]] made of a stack of conducting disks, arranged so that the current moves in a helical path through them, with a hole through the center where the maximum field is created. This design has the mechanical strength to withstand the extreme [[Lorentz force]]s of the field, which increase with ''B''<sup>2</sup>. The disks are pierced with holes through which cooling water passes to carry away the heat caused by the high current. The strongest continuous field achieved with a resistive magnet is currently (2008) 35 T, produced by a Bitter electromagnet.<ref name="MagnetLab"/> The strongest continuous magnetic field, 45 T,<ref name="MagnetLabU" /> was achieved with a hybrid device consisting of a Bitter magnet inside a superconducting magnet.
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| === Exploding electromagnets ===
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| The factor limiting the strength of electromagnets is the inability to dissipate the enormous waste heat, so more powerful fields, up to 100 T,<ref name="MagnetLab" /> have been obtained from resistive magnets by sending brief pulses of current through them. The most powerful manmade magnetic fields have been created by using explosives to compress the magnetic field inside an electromagnet as it is pulsed. The [[Implosion (mechanical process)|implosion]] compresses the magnetic field to values of around 1000 T<ref name="MagnetLabU" /> for a few microseconds. While this method may seem very destructive there are methods to control the blast so that neither the experiment nor the magnetic structure are harmed, by redirecting the brunt of the force radially outwards. These devices are known as destructive pulsed electromagnets. They are used in [[physics]] and [[materials science]] research to study the properties of materials at high magnetic fields.
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| == Definition of terms ==
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| {|cellpadding="1" style="border:1px solid;"
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| |-
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| |width="40"|<math>A\,</math>||width="130"| square meter||cross sectional area of core
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| |-
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| |<math>B\,</math>||tesla||[[Magnetic field]] (Magnetic flux density)
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| |-
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| |<math>F\,</math>||newton||Force exerted by magnetic field
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| |-
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| |<math>H\,</math>||ampere per meter||[[Magnetic field|Magnetizing field]]
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| |-
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| |<math>I\,</math>||ampere||Current in the winding wire
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| |<math>L\,</math>||meter||Total length of the magnetic field path <math>L_{\mathrm{core}}+L_{\mathrm{gap}}\,</math>
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| |-
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| |<math>L_{\mathrm{core}}\,</math>||meter||Length of the magnetic field path in the core material
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| |-
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| |<math>L_{\mathrm{gap}}\,</math>||meter||Length of the magnetic field path in air gaps
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| |<math>m_1, m_2\,</math>||ampere meter ||Pole strength of the electromagnet
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| |<math>\mu\,</math>||newton per square ampere||Permeability of the electromagnet core material
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| |<math>\mu_0\,</math>||newton per square ampere||Permeability of free space (or air) = 4π(10<sup>−7</sup>)
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| |-
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| |<math>\mu_r\,</math>||- ||Relative permeability of the electromagnet core material
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| |<math>N\,</math>||-||Number of turns of wire on the electromagnet
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| |<math>r\,</math>||meter ||Distance between the poles of two electromagnets
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| |-
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| |}
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| == See also ==
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| * [[Dipole magnet]] – Electromagnet used in particle accelerators
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| * [[Electromagnetism]]
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| * [[Magnetic bearing]]
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| * [[Quadrupole magnet]] – Electromagnet used in particle accelerators
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| * [[Superconducting magnet]] – Electromagnet that uses superconducting windings
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| * [[Bitter electromagnet]] – a powerful type of electromagnet
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| * [[Electropermanent magnet]] - a magnetically hard electromagnet arrangement
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| == References ==
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| {{reflist}}
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| == External links ==
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| {{Commons category|Electromagnets}}
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| * [http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/education/tutorials/magnetacademy/magnets/ Magnets from Mini to Mighty: Primer on electromagnets and other magnets] National High Magnetic Field Laboratory
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| * [http://instruct.tri-c.edu/fgram/web/mdipole.htm Magnetic Fields and Forces] Cuyahoga Community College
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| * [http://geophysics.ou.edu/solid_earth/notes/mag_basic/mag_basic.html Fundamental Relationships] School of Geology and Geophysics, University of Oklahoma
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| [[Category:Concepts in physics]]
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| [[Category:Electromagnetism]]
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| [[Category:Types of magnets]]
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| [[Category:Smithsonian Institution Archives related]]
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