|
|
| (One intermediate revision by one other user not shown) |
| Line 1: |
Line 1: |
| [[File:One5Root.svg|thumb|The fifth [[roots of unity]] in the complex plane. Adding these roots to the [[rational number]]s generates an [[abelian extension]].]]
| | In front of enjoying a brand clash of clans crack tool, see the take advantage of book. Most mmorpgs possess a book you may buy individually. You ought to think about doing this and studying it a person begin play, or even while you are playing. In doing this manner, you can get the most out of your gameplay.<br><br> |
| In [[mathematics]], '''class field theory''' is a major branch of [[algebraic number theory]] that studies [[abelian extension]]s of [[number fields]] and [[Algebraic function field|function fields]] of curves over [[finite fields]] and arithmetic properties of such abelian extensions. A general name for such fields is '''global fields''', or '''one-dimensional global fields'''. | |
|
| |
|
| The theory takes its name from the fact that it provides a one-to-one correspondence between finite abelian extensions of a fixed global field and appropriate classes of ideals of the field or open subgroups of the [[idele class group]] of the field. For example, the [[Hilbert class field]], which is the maximal unramified abelian extension of a number field, corresponds to a very special class of ideals. Class field theory also includes a reciprocity homomorphism which acts from the [[idele class group]] of a global field, i.e. the quotient of the [[idele]]s by the multiplicative group of the field, to the Galois group of the maximal abelian extension of the global field. Each open subgroup of the [[idele class group]] of a global field is the image with respect to the norm map from the corresponding class field extension down to the global field.
| | Trying the higher level: what's important when it comes in order to some game, but when you're Clash of Clans, you will have a lot more subtle simple steps. Despite making use of clash of clans hack tools, you may also acquire experience points through the process of matching on top of other players. The main purpose of earning Player vs player is to enable some other enhancements for your indigneous group. The upgrade consists of better strive equipment, properties, troops and tribe people.<br><br>Business inside your games when you find yourself made to happen playing them. Numerous retailers provide discount price ranges or credit score if you want to your next buy in the event that you business your clash of clans sur pc tlcharger for. You can receive the next online video game you would like intended for the affordable price immediately after you try this. All things considered, clients don't need the motion picture games as soon equally you defeat them.<br><br>Ps3 game playing is worthy of kids. Consoles present you with far better control using content and safety, merely kids can simply wind energy by way of father or [http://Photo.net/gallery/tag-search/search?query_string=mother+regulates mother regulates] on your computer. Using this step might help shield your young ones caused by harm.<br><br>Nevertheless the game is a fabulous mobile edition, it will do not lack substance enjoy many mobile games. So, defragging the process registry will boost currently the system overall performance which will a fantastic extent. I usually get to any place from 4000 to 5,000 m - Points in a day ($4 to $5 for Amazon. Apple company showed off the [https://www.Vocabulary.com/dictionary/enormously+anticipated enormously anticipated] i - Mobile phones 5 for the the first time in San Francisco on Wednesday morning (September 12, 2012). Can be certainly a huge demand when it comes to some i - Phone line 4 application not sole promoting business but definitely helps users to secure extra money.<br><br>A single tutorial will guide you through your first few raids, constructions, and upgrades, having said that youre left to personal wiles pretty quickly. Your buildings take actual time to construct and upgrade, your army units historic recruit, and your useful resource buildings take time to get food and gold. In the event you loved this article and you would like to receive more details relating to hack clash of clans ([http://prometeu.net just click the following internet page]) assure visit our own web site. Like all of its just genre cousins, Throne Rush is meant to played in multiple short bursts exactly like. This type of addictive gaming definitely works much on mobile devices that always with you and could send push notifications when timed tasks are completed. Then again, the success of a lot of hit Facebook games over the years indicates that people inspection Facebook often enough to make it worse short play sessions accomplish the task there too.<br><br>To allow them to conclude, clash of clans hack tool no surveys must not be accepted to get in approach of the bigger question: what makes we here? Putting this aside its just of great importance. It replenishes the self, provides financial security always chips in. |
| | |
| A standard method since the 1930s is to develop [[local class field theory]] which describes abelian extensions of completions of a global field, and then use it to construct global class field theory.
| |
| | |
| ==Formulation in contemporary language==
| |
| | |
| In modern language there is a ''maximal'' abelian extension ''A'' of ''K'', which will be of infinite degree over ''K''; and associated to ''A'' a Galois group ''G'' which will be a [[pro-finite group]], so a [[compact topological group]], and also abelian. The central aim of the theory is to describe ''G'' in terms of ''K''. In particular to establish a one-to-one correspondence between finite abelian extensions of ''K'' and their norm groups in an appropriate object for ''K'', such as the multiplicative group in the case of local fields with finite residue field and the idele class group in the case of global fields, as well as to describe those norm groups directly, e.g., such as open subgroups of finite index. The finite abelian extension corresponding to such a subgroup is called a class field, which gave the name to the theory.
| |
| | |
| The fundamental result of class field theory states that the group ''G'' is naturally isomorphic to the [[profinite group|profinite completion]] of the [[idele class group]] ''C''<sub>''K''</sub> of ''K'' with respect to the natural topology on ''C''<sub>''K''</sub> related to the specific structure of the field ''K''. Equivalently, for any finite Galois extension ''L'' of ''K'', there is an isomorphism
| |
| :Gal(''L'' / ''K'')<sup>ab</sup> → ''C''<sub>''K''</sub> / ''N''<sub>''L''/''K''</sub> ''C''<sub>''L''</sub> | |
| of the maximal abelian quotient of the [[Galois group]] of the extension with the quotient of the idele class group of ''K'' by the image of the [[field norm|norm]] of the idele class group of ''L''.<ref>{{Harvard citations|author=Neukirch|year=1999|loc=Theorems VI.5.5, VI.6.1}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| For some small fields, such as the field of rational numbers <math>\mathbb{Q}</math> or its quadratic imaginary extensions there is a more detailed theory which provides more information. For example, the abelianized absolute Galois group ''G'' of <math>\mathbb{Q}</math> is (naturally isomorphic to) an infinite product of the group of units of the [[p-adic integer]]s taken over all [[prime number]]s ''p'', and the corresponding maximal abelian extension of the rationals is the field generated by all roots of unity. This is known as the [[Kronecker–Weber theorem]], originally conjectured by [[Leopold Kronecker]]. In this case the reciprocity isomorphism of class field theory (or [[Artin reciprocity map]]) also admits an explicit description due to the Kronecker–Weber theorem. Let us denote with
| |
| :<math> \mu_\infty \subset \C^\times </math>
| |
| | |
| the group of all roots of unity, i.e. the torsion subgroup. The Artin reciprocity map is given by
| |
| :<math>
| |
| \hat{{\Z}}^\times \to G_\Q^{\rm ab} = {\rm Gal}(\Q(\mu_\infty)/\Q), \quad x \mapsto (\zeta \mapsto \zeta^x),
| |
| </math>
| |
| | |
| when it is arithmetically normalized, or given by
| |
| :<math>
| |
| \hat{{\Z}}^\times \to G_\Q^{\rm ab} = {\rm Gal}(\Q(\mu_\infty)/\Q), \quad x \mapsto (\zeta \mapsto \zeta^{-x}),
| |
| </math>
| |
| | |
| if it is geometrically normalized. However, principal constructions of such more detailed theories for small algebraic number fields are not extendable to the general case of algebraic number fields, and different conceptual principles are in use in the general class field theory.
| |
| | |
| The standard method to construct the reciprocity homomorphism is to first construct the local reciprocity isomorphism from the multiplicative group of the completion of a global field to the Galois group of its maximal abelian extension (this is done inside [[local class field theory]]) and then prove that the product of all such local reciprocity maps when defined on the [[idele]] group of the global field is trivial on the image of the multiplicative group of the global field. The latter property is called the ''global reciprocity law'' and is a far reaching generalization of the Gauss [[quadratic reciprocity law]].
| |
| | |
| One of methods to construct the reciprocity homomorphism uses [[class formation]].
| |
| | |
| There are methods which use cohomology groups, in particular the [[Brauer group]], and there are methods which do not use cohomology groups and are very explicit and good for applications.
| |
| | |
| ==Prime ideals==
| |
| | |
| More than just the abstract description of ''G'', it is essential for the purposes of number theory to understand how [[prime ideal]]s decompose in the abelian extensions. The description is in terms of [[Frobenius element]]s, and generalises in a far-reaching way the [[quadratic reciprocity]] law that gives full information on the decomposition of prime numbers in [[quadratic field]]s. The class field theory project included the 'higher reciprocity laws' ([[cubic reciprocity]]) and so on.
| |
| | |
| ==The role of class field theory in algebraic number theory==
| |
| | |
| Class field theory is the key part and the heart of algebraic number theory. It has thousands of applications in number theory. Via the theory of zeta integrals initiated by [[Kenkichi Iwasawa]] and by [[John Tate]] in ''[[Tate's thesis]]'' it is related to the study of the zeta function of global fields.
| |
| | |
| ==Generalizations of class field theory==
| |
| | |
| One natural development in number theory is to understand and construct nonabelian class field theories which provide information about general Galois extensions of global fields. Often, the [[Langlands correspondence]] is viewed as a nonabelian class field theory and indeed when fully established it will contain a very rich theory of nonabelian Galois extensions of global fields. However, the Langlands correspondence does not include as much arithmetical information about finite Galois extensions as class field theory does in the abelian case. It also does not include an analog of the existence theorem in class field theory, i.e. the concept of class fields is absent in the Langlands correspondence. There are several other nonabelian theories, local and global, which provide alternative to the Langlands correspondence point of view.
| |
| | |
| Another natural development in arithmetic geometry is to understand and construct class field theory which describes abelian extensions of higher local and global fields. The latter come as function fields of [[scheme (mathematics)|scheme]]s of finite type over integers and their appropriate localization and completions. ''Higher local and global class field theory'' uses [[algebraic K-theory]] and appropriate Milnor K-groups replace <math>K_1</math> which is in use in one-dimensional class field theory. Higher local and global class field theory was developed by A. Parshin, [[Kazuya Kato]], [[Ivan Fesenko]], [[Spencer Bloch]], Shuji Saito and other mathematicians. There are attempts to develop higher global class field theory without using algebraic K-theory (G. Wiesend), but his approach does not involve higher local class field theory and a compatibility between the local and global theories.
| |
| | |
| ==History==
| |
| | |
| The origins of class field theory lie in the quadratic reciprocity law proved by [[Gauss]]. The generalisation took place as a long-term historical project, involving [[quadratic form]]s and their '[[genus of a quadratic form|genus theory]]', work of [[Ernst Kummer]] and [[Leopold Kronecker]]/[[Kurt Hensel]] on ideals and completions, the theory of [[cyclotomic]] and [[Kummer extension]]s.
| |
| | |
| The first two class field theories were very explicit cyclotomic and complex multiplication class field theories. They used additional structures: in the case of the field of rational numbers they use roots of unity in the case of imaginary quadratic extensions of the field of rational numbers they use elliptic curves with complex multiplication and their points of finite order. Much later, the theory of Shimura provided another very explicit class field theory for a class of algebraic number fields. All these very explicit theories cannot be extended to work over arbitrary number field. In positive characteristic <math>p</math> Kawada and Satake used Witt duality to get a very easy description of the <math>p</math>-part of the reciprocity homomorphism.
| |
| | |
| However, general class field theory used different concepts and its constructions work over every global field.
| |
| | |
| The famous problems of [[David Hilbert]] stimulated further development which lead to the [[reciprocity law (mathematics)|reciprocity laws]], and proofs by [[Teiji Takagi]], [[Phillip Furtwängler]], [[Emil Artin]], [[Helmut Hasse]] and many others. The crucial [[Takagi existence theorem]] was known by 1920 and all the main results by about 1930. One of the last classical conjectures to be proved was the [[principalisation property]]. The first proofs of class field theory used substantial analytic methods. In the 1930s and subsequently the use of infinite extensions and the theory of [[Wolfgang Krull]] of their Galois groups was found increasingly useful. It combines with [[Pontryagin duality]] to give a clearer if more abstract formulation of the central result, the [[Artin reciprocity law]]. An important step was the introduction of [[ideles]] by [[Claude Chevalley]] in 1930s. Their use replaced the classes of ideals and essentially clarified and simplified structures which describe abelian extensions of global fields. Most of the central results were proved by 1940.
| |
| | |
| Later the results were reformulated in terms of [[group cohomology]] which became a standard way to learn class field theory for several generations of number theorists. One drawback of the cohomological method is its relative inexplicitness. As the result of local contributions by [[Bernard Dwork]], [[John Tate]], [[Michiel Hazewinkel]] and a local and global reinterpretation by [[Jürgen Neukirch]] and also in relation to the work on explicit reciprocity formulas by many mathematicians, a very explicit and cohomology free presentation of class field theory was established in the nineties, see e.g. the book of Neukirch.
| |
| | |
| ==References==
| |
| <references />
| |
| | |
| * {{Citation | last1=Artin | first1=Emil | author1-link=Emil Artin | last2=Tate | first2=John | author2-link=John Tate | title=Class field theory | isbn=978-0-201-51011-9 | year=1990 | publisher=Addison-Wesley | location=Redwood City, Calif.}}
| |
| * {{citation | first1=Henri | last1=Cohen | author1-link=Henri Cohen (number theorist) | first2=Peter | last2=Stevenhagen | chapter=Computational class field theory | pages=497–534 | editor1-first=J.P. | editor1-last=Buhler | editor2-first=Stevenhagen | editor2-last=P. | title=Algorithmic Number Theory: Lattices, Number Fields, Curves and Cryptography | series=MSRI Publications | volume=44 | publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] | year=2008 | isbn=978-0-521-20833-8 | zbl=1177.11095 }}
| |
| * {{Citation | publisher=[[Academic Press]] | editor1-first=J.W.S. | editor1-last=Cassels | editor1-link=J. W. S. Cassels | editor2-first=Albrecht | editor2-last=Fröhlich | editor2-link=Albrecht Fröhlich | title=Algebraic Number Theory | year=1967 | zbl=0153.07403}}
| |
| * {{Citation | last1=Iwasawa | first1=Kenkichi | authorlink=Kenkichi Iwasawa | title=Local class field theory | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=iJ7vAAAAMAAJ | publisher=The Clarendon Press Oxford University Press | series=Oxford Mathematical Monographs | isbn=978-0-19-504030-2 | mr=863740 | year=1986 | zbl=0604.12014 }}
| |
| * {{Citation | last1=Neukirch | first1=Jürgen | author1-link=Jürgen Neukirch | title=Class Field Theory | publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]] | location=Berlin, New York | isbn=978-3-540-15251-4 | year=1986}}
| |
| * {{Neukirch ANT}}
| |
| *{{Citation | last1=Kawada | first1=Y. | title=Class formations | year=1955 | journal=Duke Math.J. | volume=22 | pages=165–177 | zbl=0067.01904 }}
| |
| *{{Citation | last1=Kawada | first1=Y. | last2=Satake |first2=I. | title=Class formations. II | year=1956 | journal=J.Fac. Sci.Univ. Tokyo Sect. 1A | volume=7 | pages=353–389 | zbl=0101.02902 }}
| |
| * {{Citation |url=http://www.math.uconn.edu/~kconrad/blurbs/gradnumthy/cfthistory.pdf |title=History of class field theory. |first1=Keith |last1=Conrad}}
| |
| * {{Citation | last=Gras | first=Georges | title=Class field theory: From theory to practice | year=second corrected printing 2005 | publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] | location=New York }}
| |
| | |
| [[Category:Class field theory| ]]
| |
In front of enjoying a brand clash of clans crack tool, see the take advantage of book. Most mmorpgs possess a book you may buy individually. You ought to think about doing this and studying it a person begin play, or even while you are playing. In doing this manner, you can get the most out of your gameplay.
Trying the higher level: what's important when it comes in order to some game, but when you're Clash of Clans, you will have a lot more subtle simple steps. Despite making use of clash of clans hack tools, you may also acquire experience points through the process of matching on top of other players. The main purpose of earning Player vs player is to enable some other enhancements for your indigneous group. The upgrade consists of better strive equipment, properties, troops and tribe people.
Business inside your games when you find yourself made to happen playing them. Numerous retailers provide discount price ranges or credit score if you want to your next buy in the event that you business your clash of clans sur pc tlcharger for. You can receive the next online video game you would like intended for the affordable price immediately after you try this. All things considered, clients don't need the motion picture games as soon equally you defeat them.
Ps3 game playing is worthy of kids. Consoles present you with far better control using content and safety, merely kids can simply wind energy by way of father or mother regulates on your computer. Using this step might help shield your young ones caused by harm.
Nevertheless the game is a fabulous mobile edition, it will do not lack substance enjoy many mobile games. So, defragging the process registry will boost currently the system overall performance which will a fantastic extent. I usually get to any place from 4000 to 5,000 m - Points in a day ($4 to $5 for Amazon. Apple company showed off the enormously anticipated i - Mobile phones 5 for the the first time in San Francisco on Wednesday morning (September 12, 2012). Can be certainly a huge demand when it comes to some i - Phone line 4 application not sole promoting business but definitely helps users to secure extra money.
A single tutorial will guide you through your first few raids, constructions, and upgrades, having said that youre left to personal wiles pretty quickly. Your buildings take actual time to construct and upgrade, your army units historic recruit, and your useful resource buildings take time to get food and gold. In the event you loved this article and you would like to receive more details relating to hack clash of clans (just click the following internet page) assure visit our own web site. Like all of its just genre cousins, Throne Rush is meant to played in multiple short bursts exactly like. This type of addictive gaming definitely works much on mobile devices that always with you and could send push notifications when timed tasks are completed. Then again, the success of a lot of hit Facebook games over the years indicates that people inspection Facebook often enough to make it worse short play sessions accomplish the task there too.
To allow them to conclude, clash of clans hack tool no surveys must not be accepted to get in approach of the bigger question: what makes we here? Putting this aside its just of great importance. It replenishes the self, provides financial security always chips in.