|
|
| (One intermediate revision by one other user not shown) |
| Line 1: |
Line 1: |
| {{distinguish2|the [[Schönhage–Strassen algorithm]] for multiplication of polynomials}}
| | An individual invest loads of cash on things like controls or possibly a memory cards, appear via intenet for a secondhand variation. Occasionally a store will probably be out of used-game hardware, which could be inexpensive. Make sure you look for any web-based seller's feedback before making the purchase so a few seconds . whether you are having what you covered.<br><br> |
|
| |
|
| In the [[mathematics|mathematical]] discipline of [[linear algebra]], '''the Strassen algorithm''', named after [[Volker Strassen]], is an [[algorithm]] used for [[matrix multiplication]]. It is faster than the standard matrix multiplication algorithm and is useful in practice for large matrices, but would be slower than [[Coppersmith–Winograd algorithm|the fastest known algorithm]] for extremely large matrices.
| | Products and solutions are a parent or possibly a gaurdian of any smidgen of one who appreciates choosing part in video games, be familiar with multi-player and on-line video game titles options. These traits give your kid to help interact with many a lot of gamers throughout the marketplace. As good as the is for your offspring in order to exhibit with others, you can not know who any of us on the other end is.<br><br>If you liked this post and you would certainly such as to get more details concerning [http://prometeu.net clash of clans hacker download] kindly go to our own web page. Nevertheless, if you want to be able to at the top of the competitors, there are several simple points you need to keep in mind. Realize your foe, know the game and the victory will be yours. It is possible try the aid of clash of clans hack tools and more rights if you such as your course. Absolutely for your convenience, allow me to share the general details in this particular sport that you must have to remember of. Study all of them scrupulously!<br><br>When the system that your boy is enjoying on may want to connect with the Net, be sure that you actually fix the settings for family before he performs the earth .. You're going to be inside a position to safeguard your kid totally from vulnerability to unsavory content utilizing these filter places. There are also options to set the amount of chatting they can participate with other individuals when online.<br><br>Provde the in-online game songs opportunity. If, nonetheless, you might end annoyed by using who's soon after one 60 minutes approximately, don't be upset to mute the television set or personal computer but play some audio of your very own. You will discover a far more enjoyable game [http://www.Dailymail.co.uk/home/search.html?sel=site&searchPhrase=playing+experience playing experience] wind up and therefore are a lot of unlikely to get the perfect frustration from actively game play.<br><br>Exercise caution about letting your child play online video games, especially games with live sound. There can be foul language in some channels, in addition a number of bullying behavior. You may also have child predators in these chat rooms. Exactly what your child is using and surveil these chitchat times due to or perhaps protection.<br><br>There is a helpful component of this diversion as fantastic. When one particular player has modified, the Clash of Clan Castle shambles in his or the woman village, he or she could successfully start or obtain for each faction to [http://search.un.org/search?ie=utf8&site=un_org&output=xml_no_dtd&client=UN_Website_en&num=10&lr=lang_en&proxystylesheet=UN_Website_en&oe=utf8&q=diverse+gamers&Submit=Go diverse gamers] exactly where they can take a glance at with every other as well as troops to just the two of you these troops could link either offensively or protectively. The Clash with regards to Clans cheat for free additionally holds the greatest district centered globally communicate so gamers could laps making use of several players for social courting and as faction applying.This recreation is a have to perform on your android software specially if you typically employing my clash for clans android hack device. |
| | |
| == History ==
| |
| [[Volker Strassen]] published the Strassen algorithm in 1969. Although his algorithm is only slightly faster than the standard algorithm for matrix multiplication, he was the first to point out that the standard approach is not optimal. His paper started the search for even faster algorithms such as the more complex [[Coppersmith–Winograd algorithm]] published in 1987.
| |
| | |
| == Algorithm ==
| |
| [[Image:Strassen algorithm.svg|thumb|800px|right|The left column represents 2x2 [[matrix multiplication]]. Naïve matrix multiplication requires one multiplication for each "1" of the left column. Each of the other columns represents a single one of the 7 multiplications in the algorithm, and the sum of the columns gives the full matrix multiplication on the left. <!-- Feel free to rewrite this description so it actually makes sense. -->]]
| |
| | |
| Let ''A'', ''B'' be two [[square matrix|square matrices]] over a [[ring (mathematics)|ring]] ''R''. We want to calculate the matrix product ''C'' as
| |
| | |
| :<math>\mathbf{C} = \mathbf{A} \mathbf{B} \qquad \mathbf{A},\mathbf{B},\mathbf{C} \in R^{2^n \times 2^n}</math>
| |
| | |
| If the matrices ''A'', ''B'' are not of type 2<sup>n</sup> x 2<sup>n</sup> we fill the missing rows and columns with zeros.
| |
| | |
| We partition ''A'', ''B'' and ''C'' into equally sized [[block matrix|block matrices]]
| |
| :<math>
| |
| \mathbf{A} =
| |
| \begin{bmatrix}
| |
| \mathbf{A}_{1,1} & \mathbf{A}_{1,2} \\
| |
| \mathbf{A}_{2,1} & \mathbf{A}_{2,2}
| |
| \end{bmatrix}
| |
| \mbox { , }
| |
| \mathbf{B} =
| |
| \begin{bmatrix}
| |
| \mathbf{B}_{1,1} & \mathbf{B}_{1,2} \\
| |
| \mathbf{B}_{2,1} & \mathbf{B}_{2,2}
| |
| \end{bmatrix}
| |
| \mbox { , }
| |
| \mathbf{C} =
| |
| \begin{bmatrix}
| |
| \mathbf{C}_{1,1} & \mathbf{C}_{1,2} \\
| |
| \mathbf{C}_{2,1} & \mathbf{C}_{2,2}
| |
| \end{bmatrix}
| |
| </math>
| |
| | |
| with
| |
| | |
| :<math>\mathbf{A}_{i,j}, \mathbf{B}_{i,j}, \mathbf{C}_{i,j} \in R^{2^{n-1} \times 2^{n-1}}</math>
| |
| | |
| then
| |
| | |
| :<math>\mathbf{C}_{1,1} = \mathbf{A}_{1,1} \mathbf{B}_{1,1} + \mathbf{A}_{1,2} \mathbf{B}_{2,1} </math>
| |
| :<math>\mathbf{C}_{1,2} = \mathbf{A}_{1,1} \mathbf{B}_{1,2} + \mathbf{A}_{1,2} \mathbf{B}_{2,2} </math>
| |
| :<math>\mathbf{C}_{2,1} = \mathbf{A}_{2,1} \mathbf{B}_{1,1} + \mathbf{A}_{2,2} \mathbf{B}_{2,1} </math>
| |
| :<math>\mathbf{C}_{2,2} = \mathbf{A}_{2,1} \mathbf{B}_{1,2} + \mathbf{A}_{2,2} \mathbf{B}_{2,2} </math>
| |
| | |
| With this construction we have not reduced the number of multiplications. We still need 8 multiplications to calculate the ''C<sub>i,j</sub>'' matrices, the same number of multiplications we need when using standard matrix multiplication.
| |
| | |
| Now comes the important part. We define new matrices
| |
| | |
| :<math>\mathbf{M}_{1} := (\mathbf{A}_{1,1} + \mathbf{A}_{2,2}) (\mathbf{B}_{1,1} + \mathbf{B}_{2,2})</math>
| |
| :<math>\mathbf{M}_{2} := (\mathbf{A}_{2,1} + \mathbf{A}_{2,2}) \mathbf{B}_{1,1}</math>
| |
| :<math>\mathbf{M}_{3} := \mathbf{A}_{1,1} (\mathbf{B}_{1,2} - \mathbf{B}_{2,2})</math>
| |
| :<math>\mathbf{M}_{4} := \mathbf{A}_{2,2} (\mathbf{B}_{2,1} - \mathbf{B}_{1,1})</math>
| |
| :<math>\mathbf{M}_{5} := (\mathbf{A}_{1,1} + \mathbf{A}_{1,2}) \mathbf{B}_{2,2}</math>
| |
| :<math>\mathbf{M}_{6} := (\mathbf{A}_{2,1} - \mathbf{A}_{1,1}) (\mathbf{B}_{1,1} + \mathbf{B}_{1,2})</math>
| |
| :<math>\mathbf{M}_{7} := (\mathbf{A}_{1,2} - \mathbf{A}_{2,2}) (\mathbf{B}_{2,1} + \mathbf{B}_{2,2})</math>
| |
| | |
| only using 7 multiplications (one for each ''M''<sub>k</sub>) instead of 8. We may now express the ''C''<sub>i,j</sub> in terms of ''M''<sub>k</sub>, like this:
| |
| | |
| :<math>\mathbf{C}_{1,1} = \mathbf{M}_{1} + \mathbf{M}_{4} - \mathbf{M}_{5} + \mathbf{M}_{7}</math>
| |
| :<math>\mathbf{C}_{1,2} = \mathbf{M}_{3} + \mathbf{M}_{5}</math>
| |
| :<math>\mathbf{C}_{2,1} = \mathbf{M}_{2} + \mathbf{M}_{4}</math>
| |
| :<math>\mathbf{C}_{2,2} = \mathbf{M}_{1} - \mathbf{M}_{2} + \mathbf{M}_{3} + \mathbf{M}_{6}</math>
| |
| | |
| We iterate this division process ''n'' times (recursively) until the [[submatrices]] degenerate into numbers (elements of the ring ''R''). The resulting product will be padded with zeroes just like ''A'' and ''B'', and should be stripped of the corresponding rows and columns.
| |
| | |
| Practical implementations of Strassen's algorithm switch to standard methods of matrix multiplication for small enough submatrices, for which those algorithms are more efficient. The particular crossover point for which Strassen's algorithm is more efficient depends on the specific implementation and hardware. Earlier authors had estimated that Strassen's algorithm is faster for matrices with widths from 32 to 128 for optimized implementations.<ref>{{Citation | last1=Skiena | first1=Steven S. | title=The Algorithm Design Manual | publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]] | location=Berlin, New York | isbn=978-0-387-94860-7 | year=1998 | chapter=§8.2.3 Matrix multiplication}}.</ref> However, it has been observed that this crossover point has been increasing in recent years, and a 2010 study found that even a single step of Strassen's algorithm is often not beneficial on current architectures, compared to a highly optimized traditional multiplication, until matrix sizes exceed 1000 or more, and even for matrix sizes of several thousand the benefit is typically marginal at best (around 10% or less).<ref>P. D'Alberto and A. Nicolau, "[http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.84.1894 Using recursion to boost ATLAS's performance]," ''Lecture Notes in Computer Science'', vol. 4759, pp. 142-151 (2010).</ref>
| |
| | |
| == Asymptotic complexity ==
| |
| | |
| The standard matrix multiplication takes approximately 2''N''<sup>3</sup> (where
| |
| ''N'' = 2<sup>''n''</sup>) arithmetic operations (additions and multiplications); the asymptotic complexity is O(''N''<sup>3</sup>).
| |
| | |
| The number of additions and multiplications required in the Strassen algorithm can be calculated as follows: let ''f''(''n'') be the number of operations for a 2<sup>''n''</sup> × 2<sup>''n''</sup> matrix. Then by recursive application of the Strassen algorithm, we see that ''f''(''n'') = 7''f''(''n''-1) + ''l''4<sup>''n''</sup>, for some constant ''l'' that depends on the number of additions performed at each application of the algorithm. Hence ''f''(''n'') = (7 + o(1))<sup>''n''</sup>, i.e., the asymptotic complexity for multiplying matrices of size ''N'' = 2<sup>''n''</sup> using the Strassen algorithm is
| |
| | |
| :<math>O([7+o(1)]^n) = O(N^{\log_{2}7+o(1)}) \approx O(N^{2.8074})</math>.
| |
| | |
| The reduction in the number of arithmetic operations however comes at the price of a somewhat reduced [[numerical stability]],<ref>{{cite journal|last=Webb|first=Miller|title=Computational complexity and numerical stability|journal=SIAM J. Comput|year=1975|page=97-107}}</ref>and the algorithm also requires significantly more memory compared to the naive algorithm. Both initial matrices must have their dimensions expanded to the next power of 2, which results in storing up to four times as many elements, and the seven auxiliary matrices each contain a quarter of the elements in the expanded ones.
| |
| | |
| === Rank or bilinear complexity ===
| |
| The bilinear complexity or '''rank''' of a [[bilinear map]] is an important concept in the asymptotic complexity of matrix multiplication. The rank of a bilinear map <math>\phi:\mathbf A \times \mathbf B \rightarrow \mathbf C</math> over a field '''F''' is defined as (somewhat of an [[abuse of notation]])
| |
| :<math>R(\phi/\mathbf F) = \min \left\{r\left|\exists f_i\in \mathbf A^*,g_i\in\mathbf B^*,w_i\in\mathbf C , \forall \mathbf a\in\mathbf A, \mathbf b\in\mathbf B, \phi(\mathbf a,\mathbf b) = \sum_{i=1}^r f_i(\mathbf a)g_i(\mathbf b)w_i \right.\right\}</math>
| |
| In other words, the rank of a bilinear map is the length of its shortest bilinear computation.<ref>Burgisser, Clausen, and Shokrollahi. ''Algebraic Complexity Theory.'' Springer-Verlag 1997.</ref> The existence of Strassen's algorithm shows that the rank of 2×2 matrix multiplication is no more than seven. To see this, let us express this algorithm (alongside the standard algorithm) as such a bilinear computation. In the case of matrices, the [[dual space]]s '''A'''* and '''B'''* consist of maps into the field '''F''' induced by a scalar '''[[Dot_product|double-dot product]]''', (i.e. in this case the sum of all the entries of a [[Hadamard product (matrices)|Hadamard product]].)
| |
| {| class = "wikitable"
| |
| | || colspan="3" | Standard algorithm || ||colspan="3" | Strassen algorithm
| |
| |-
| |
| || ''i'' || ''f<sub>i</sub>''('''a''') || ''g<sub>i</sub>''('''b''') || ''w<sub>i</sub>'' || || ''f<sub>i</sub>''('''a''') || ''g<sub>i</sub>''('''b''') || ''w<sub>i</sub>''
| |
| |-
| |
| || 1
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}1&0\\0&0\end{bmatrix}:\mathbf a</math>
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}1&0\\0&0\end{bmatrix}:\mathbf b</math>
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}1&0\\0&0\end{bmatrix}</math>
| |
| ||
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}1&0\\0&1\end{bmatrix}:\mathbf a</math>
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}1&0\\0&1\end{bmatrix}:\mathbf b</math>
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}1&0\\0&1\end{bmatrix}</math>
| |
| |-
| |
| || 2
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}0&1\\0&0\end{bmatrix}:\mathbf a</math>
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}0&0\\1&0\end{bmatrix}:\mathbf b</math>
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}1&0\\0&0\end{bmatrix}</math>
| |
| ||
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}0&0\\1&1\end{bmatrix}:\mathbf a</math>
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}1&0\\0&0\end{bmatrix}:\mathbf b</math>
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}0&0\\1&-1\end{bmatrix}</math>
| |
| |-
| |
| || 3
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}1&0\\0&0\end{bmatrix}:\mathbf a</math>
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}0&1\\0&0\end{bmatrix}:\mathbf b</math>
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}0&1\\0&0\end{bmatrix}</math>
| |
| ||
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}1&0\\0&0\end{bmatrix}:\mathbf a</math>
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}0&1\\0&-1\end{bmatrix}:\mathbf b</math>
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}0&1\\0&1\end{bmatrix}</math>
| |
| |-
| |
| || 4
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}0&1\\0&0\end{bmatrix}:\mathbf a</math>
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}0&0\\0&1\end{bmatrix}:\mathbf b</math>
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}0&1\\0&0\end{bmatrix}</math>
| |
| ||
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}0&0\\0&1\end{bmatrix}:\mathbf a</math>
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}-1&0\\1&0\end{bmatrix}:\mathbf b</math>
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}1&0\\1&0\end{bmatrix}</math>
| |
| |-
| |
| || 5
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}0&0\\1&0\end{bmatrix}:\mathbf a</math>
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}1&0\\0&0\end{bmatrix}:\mathbf b</math>
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}0&0\\1&0\end{bmatrix}</math>
| |
| ||
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}1&1\\0&0\end{bmatrix}:\mathbf a</math>
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}0&0\\0&1\end{bmatrix}:\mathbf b</math>
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}-1&1\\0&0\end{bmatrix}</math>
| |
| |-
| |
| || 6
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}0&0\\0&1\end{bmatrix}:\mathbf a</math>
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}0&0\\1&0\end{bmatrix}:\mathbf b</math>
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}0&0\\1&0\end{bmatrix}</math>
| |
| ||
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}-1&0\\1&0\end{bmatrix}:\mathbf a</math>
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}1&1\\0&0\end{bmatrix}:\mathbf b</math>
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}0&0\\0&1\end{bmatrix}</math>
| |
| |-
| |
| || 7
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}0&0\\1&0\end{bmatrix}:\mathbf a</math>
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}0&1\\0&0\end{bmatrix}:\mathbf b</math>
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}0&0\\0&1\end{bmatrix}</math>
| |
| ||
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}0&1\\0&-1\end{bmatrix}:\mathbf a</math>
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}0&0\\1&1\end{bmatrix}:\mathbf b</math>
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}1&0\\0&0\end{bmatrix}</math>
| |
| |-
| |
| || 8
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}0&0\\0&1\end{bmatrix}:\mathbf a</math>
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}0&0\\0&1\end{bmatrix}:\mathbf b</math>
| |
| ||<math>\begin{bmatrix}0&0\\0&1\end{bmatrix}</math>
| |
| ||
| |
| |colspan="3"|
| |
| |-
| |
| ||
| |
| |colspan="3"|<math>\mathbf a\mathbf b = \sum_{i=1}^8 f_i(\mathbf a)g_i(\mathbf b)w_i</math>
| |
| ||
| |
| |colspan="3"|<math>\mathbf a\mathbf b = \sum_{i=1}^7 f_i(\mathbf a)g_i(\mathbf b)w_i</math>
| |
| |}
| |
| It can be shown that the total number of elementary multiplications ''L'' required for matrix multiplication is tightly asymptotically bound to the rank ''R'', i.e. <math>L = \Theta(R)</math>, or more specifically, since the constants are known, <math>\frac 1 2 R\le L\le R.</math> One useful property of the rank is that it is submultiplicative for [[tensor product]]s, and this enables one to show that 2<sup>''n''</sup>×2<sup>''n''</sup>×2<sup>''n''</sup> matrix multiplication can be accomplished with no more than 7<sup>''n''</sup> elementary multiplications for any ''n''. (This ''n''-fold tensor product of the 2×2×2 matrix multiplication map with itself—an ''n''th tensor power—is realized by the recursive step in the algorithm shown.)
| |
| | |
| == See also ==
| |
| * [[Computational complexity of mathematical operations]]
| |
| * [[Gauss–Jordan elimination]]
| |
| * [[Coppersmith–Winograd algorithm]]
| |
| * [[Z-order (curve)|Z-order matrix representation]]
| |
| * [[Karatsuba algorithm]], for multiplying ''n''-digit integers in <math>O(n^{\log_2 3})</math> instead of in <math>O(n^2)</math> time
| |
| * [[Multiplication_algorithm#Gauss.27s_complex_multiplication_algorithm|Gauss's complex multiplication algorithm]] multiplies two complex numbers using 3 real multiplications instead of 4
| |
| | |
| == References ==
| |
| <references/>
| |
| * Strassen, Volker, ''Gaussian Elimination is not Optimal'', Numer. Math. 13, p. 354-356, 1969
| |
| * [[Thomas H. Cormen]], [[Charles E. Leiserson]], [[Ronald L. Rivest]], and [[Clifford Stein]]. ''[[Introduction to Algorithms]]'', Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0-262-03293-7. Chapter 28: Section 28.2: Strassen's algorithm for matrix multiplication, pp.735–741.
| |
| | |
| ==External links==
| |
| *{{MathWorld|urlname=StrassenFormulas|title=Strassen's Formulas}} (also includes formulas for fast [[matrix inversion]])
| |
| *Tyler J. Earnest, ''[http://www.mc2.umbc.edu/docs/earnest.pdf Strassen's Algorithm on the Cell Broadband Engine]''
| |
| | |
| * ''[http://gitorious.org/intelws2010/matrix-multiplication/blobs/master/src/matmul.c Simple Strassen's algorithms implementation in C] (easy for education purposes)''
| |
| | |
| * ''[http://www.cs.huji.ac.il/~omrif01/Strassen Simple Strassen's algorithms implementation in Java]''
| |
| | |
| {{Numerical linear algebra}}
| |
| [[Category:Numerical linear algebra]]
| |
An individual invest loads of cash on things like controls or possibly a memory cards, appear via intenet for a secondhand variation. Occasionally a store will probably be out of used-game hardware, which could be inexpensive. Make sure you look for any web-based seller's feedback before making the purchase so a few seconds . whether you are having what you covered.
Products and solutions are a parent or possibly a gaurdian of any smidgen of one who appreciates choosing part in video games, be familiar with multi-player and on-line video game titles options. These traits give your kid to help interact with many a lot of gamers throughout the marketplace. As good as the is for your offspring in order to exhibit with others, you can not know who any of us on the other end is.
If you liked this post and you would certainly such as to get more details concerning clash of clans hacker download kindly go to our own web page. Nevertheless, if you want to be able to at the top of the competitors, there are several simple points you need to keep in mind. Realize your foe, know the game and the victory will be yours. It is possible try the aid of clash of clans hack tools and more rights if you such as your course. Absolutely for your convenience, allow me to share the general details in this particular sport that you must have to remember of. Study all of them scrupulously!
When the system that your boy is enjoying on may want to connect with the Net, be sure that you actually fix the settings for family before he performs the earth .. You're going to be inside a position to safeguard your kid totally from vulnerability to unsavory content utilizing these filter places. There are also options to set the amount of chatting they can participate with other individuals when online.
Provde the in-online game songs opportunity. If, nonetheless, you might end annoyed by using who's soon after one 60 minutes approximately, don't be upset to mute the television set or personal computer but play some audio of your very own. You will discover a far more enjoyable game playing experience wind up and therefore are a lot of unlikely to get the perfect frustration from actively game play.
Exercise caution about letting your child play online video games, especially games with live sound. There can be foul language in some channels, in addition a number of bullying behavior. You may also have child predators in these chat rooms. Exactly what your child is using and surveil these chitchat times due to or perhaps protection.
There is a helpful component of this diversion as fantastic. When one particular player has modified, the Clash of Clan Castle shambles in his or the woman village, he or she could successfully start or obtain for each faction to diverse gamers exactly where they can take a glance at with every other as well as troops to just the two of you these troops could link either offensively or protectively. The Clash with regards to Clans cheat for free additionally holds the greatest district centered globally communicate so gamers could laps making use of several players for social courting and as faction applying.This recreation is a have to perform on your android software specially if you typically employing my clash for clans android hack device.