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| {{multiple issues|
| | Anxiousness disorders are a standard downside, affecting approximately 20 million adults and kids in America. Anxiousness is a typical emotion consisting of uncertainty and fear confronted by many, whilst nervousness issues are when such fears are experienced irrationally. There are many treatments accessible, ranging from remedy to therapy and different therapies. One treatment is through using natural herbal dietary supplements.<br><br>If somebody in your loved ones has panic assaults, chances are you'll feel pissed off, overworked (because it's a must to take over his or her duties), or socially isolated because the particular person restricts household activities. These emotions are frequent. To rule out a coronary heart assault, a doctor will probably use an electrocardiogram (EKG) to measure the electrical perform of the heart. A physician may additionally recommend blood exams to check thyroid hormones. A thyroid hormone imbalance can have an effect on the body's ability to regulate heart rhythms. What's panic disorder? (n.d.). Nationwide Institute of Mental Well being. Retrieved September 21, 2013,from -disorder/index.shtml your self permission to work though an attack. Permit your self the time. The world won't blow up or melt away if you do.<br><br>There is a huge open field of analysis investigating panic dysfunction and its comorbidconditions. There is a lot yet to be discovered, and some of it willrevolutionize our understanding of psychosomatic medication and somatic anxiety inparticular. The panic attacks typically trigger heavy injury on the psyche of the affected person in addition to on the bodily physique. For many days the particular person complains of tiredness and is unable to focus their consideration on any duties. Folks often find themselves not capable of adhere to good eating habits and keep throwing up food thereby they develop weaker daily. Raises weight loss certain mood-affecting chemicals in the blood and in addition affects the nervous system with its addictive elements. Alcohol addiction is often associated with panic disorder.<br><br>The article under lists some strategies for coping with nervousness as soon as it has come on. A lot of the concepts are relevant to feeling panicky too. As the article detox diet says right off the bat, the idea is to use these coping strategies to mop up bouts of tension once they begin. Total although it is best to undertake a more basic angle where you do not worry your anxiousness and attempt to management it at every flip. Coping With Anxiety In The Moment Make way of life adjustments to scale back your anxiety at its source<br><br>Sadly some medicines are extremely addictive although they are very efficient. Because of this, many are solely meant for short term use to address fast considerations. After a certain course of an addictive kind of remedy, chances are you'll be prescribed another medication that's extra appropriate on an extended-term foundation. It is very essential to keep in mind that any prescribed medication needs to be taken as directed and that you should never all of a sudden stop taking a drugs with out speaking to your health care supplier first. |
| {{globalize/North America|date=September 2011}}
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| {{cleanup|reason=Sections are written into the text of the article instead of formatted correctly|date=January 2013}}
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| }}
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| [[File:Chrysler Building detail.jpg|thumb|Sheets of [[Chrysler Building#Crown ornamentation|''Nirosta'']] stainless steel cover the [[Chrysler Building]]]]
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| [[File:Mild steel sheet metal close up.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Microscopic close-up of mild steel sheet metal.]]
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| '''Sheet metal''' is [[metal]] formed by an industrial process into thin, flat pieces. It is one of the fundamental forms used in [[metalworking]] and it can be cut and bent into a variety of shapes. Countless everyday objects are constructed with sheet metal. Thicknesses can vary significantly; extremely thin thicknesses are considered [[foil (metal)|foil]] or [[Metal leaf|leaf]], and pieces thicker than 6 mm (0.25 in) are considered [[Structural steel|plate]].
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| Sheet metal is available in flat pieces or coiled strips. The coils are formed by running a continuous sheet of metal through a [[roll slitting|roll slitter]].
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| The thickness of sheet metal is commonly specified by a traditional, non-linear measure known as its [[Sheet metal gauge|gauge]]. The larger the gauge number, the thinner the metal. Commonly used steel sheet metal ranges from 30 gauge to about 8 gauge. Gauge differs between ferrous [[Iron|(iron based)]] metals and nonferrous metals such as aluminum or copper; copper thickness, for example is measured in ounces (and represents the thickness of 1 ounce of copper rolled out to an area of 1 square foot).
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| There are many different metals that can be made into sheet metal, such as [[aluminum]], [[brass]], [[copper]], [[steel]], [[tin]], [[nickel]] and [[titanium]]. For decorative uses, important sheet metals include [[silver]], [[gold]], and [[platinum]] (platinum sheet metal is also utilized as a [[catalyst]].) | |
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| Sheet metal is used for car bodies, airplane wings, medical tables, roofs for buildings (architecture) and many other applications. Sheet metal of iron and other materials with high magnetic [[permeability (electromagnetism)|permeability]], also known as [[Transformer#Construction|laminated steel cores]], has applications in [[transformer]]s and [[electric machine]]s. Historically, an important use of sheet metal was in [[plate armor]] worn by [[cavalry]], and sheet metal continues to have many decorative uses, including in [[horse tack]]. Sheet metal workers are also known as "tin bashers" (or "tin knockers"), a name derived from the hammering of panel seams when installing tin roofs.{{citation needed|date=November 2011}}
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| In 2011, the sheet metal industry was almost $20.5 billion in the United States.<ref>[https://www.pellresearch.com/Sheet-Metal-Work-Manufacturing.htm Pell Research] - Sheet Metal Industry Statistics Report</ref> There were 4,000 firms employing 106,000 sheet metal workers.
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| ==Materials==
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| ===Stainless steel===
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| Usage of [[Structural steel|steel as a building material]] is popular as a cost effective, quality material as compared to the alternatives.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.versatube.com/benefits-of-steel/|title=Benefits of steel|publisher=VersaTube|accessdate=14 June 2013}}</ref> The three most common [[stainless steel]] grades available in sheet metal are 304, 316, and 410.<ref name="dsm">{{Cite web | title = Sheet metal material | url = http://www.precisionsheetmetal.com/home/materials.htm | accessdate = 2009-07-26}}</ref>
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| Grade 304 is the most common of the three grades. It offers good corrosion resistance while maintaining [[formability]] and [[weldability]]. Available [[brushed metal|finishes]] are #2B, #3, and #4. Grade 303 is not available in sheet form.<ref name="dsm"/>
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| Grade 316 possesses more corrosion resistance and strength at elevated temperatures than 304. It is commonly used for [[pump]]s, [[valve]]s, chemical equipment, and marine applications. Available finishes are #2B, #3, and #4.<ref name="dsm"/>
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| Grade 410 is a [[heat treating|heat treatable]] stainless steel, but it has a lower corrosion resistance than the other grades. It is commonly used in [[cutlery]]. The only available finish is dull.<ref name="dsm"/>
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| ===Aluminium===
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| [[Aluminium]] is also a popular metal used in sheet metal due to its flexibility, wide range of options, cost effectiveness, and other properties.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wicona.com/upload/24268/Sustainability%20of%20Aluminium%20Buildings.pdf|title=Sustainability of Aluminium in Buildings|publisher=European Aluminium Association|accessdate=20 June 2013}}</ref> The four most common [[aluminium]] grades available as sheet metal are 1100-H14, 3003-H14, 5052-H32, and 6061-T6.<ref name="dsm"/><ref>{{Cite document | title = Central Steel & Wire Company Catalog | edition = 2006-2008 | page = 151 | postscript =.}}</ref>
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| Grade 1100-H14 is commercially pure aluminium, highly chemical and weather resistant. It is ductile enough for [[deep drawing]] and weldable, but has low strength. It is commonly used in chemical processing equipment, light reflectors, and [[jewelry]].<ref name="dsm"/>
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| Grade 3003-H14 is stronger than 1100, while maintaining the same formability and low cost. It is corrosion resistant and weldable. It is often used in [[Stamping (metalworking)|stamping]]s, [[Spinning (polymers)|spun]] and [[drawing (metalworking)|drawn]] parts, [[mail box]]es{{dn|date=January 2014}}, [[Cabinet (furniture)|cabinets]], [[tank]]s, and [[Fan (mechanical)|fan]] blades.<ref name="dsm"/>
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| Grade 5052-H32 is much stronger than 3003 while still maintaining good formability. It maintains high corrosion resistance and weldability. Common applications include electronic chassis, tanks, and [[pressure vessel]]s.<ref name="dsm"/>
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| Grade [[6061 aluminium alloy|6061-T6]] is a common heat-treated structural aluminium alloy. It is weldable, corrosion resistant, and stronger than 5052, but not as formable. It loses some of its strength when welded.<ref name="dsm"/> It is used in modern aircraft structures.<ref>[http://www.zenithair.com/kit-data/allmetal.htm All Metal Construction Made Easy]</ref>
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| ==Gauge==
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| {{Confusing|section|reason=it does not explain the difference between the various gauge standards like Manufacturers' Standard Gauge, Standard Decimal Gauge, U.S. Standard Gauge, Birmingham Gage and British Standard Gauge and their appropriate application|date=June 2013}}
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| Manufacturers' Standard Gauge for Sheet Steel is based on an average weight of 41.82 lb (18.96 kg) per square foot per inch thick.<ref>Oberg, p. 2522.</ref> Gauge is defined differently for ferrous (iron-based) and non-ferrous metals (e.g., aluminium and brass).
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| [[File:Thickness vs gauge.png|thumb|right|Rate of change in thickness vs gauge number]]
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| |+ Standard sheet metal gauges<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unc.edu/~rowlett/units/scales/sheetmetal.html|title=Sheet Metal Thickness Gauges|last=Rowlett|first=Ross|date=26 July 2002|publisher=University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill|accessdate=21 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.corrugated-metals.com/gaugeindecimals.html|title=Corrugated Metals: Metal Tips Gauge in decimals of an inch|publisher=Corrugated Metals, Inc.|accessdate=22 June 2013}}</ref>
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| ! Gauge !! U.S. standard<ref name=Oberg387>Oberg, p. 387.</ref><ref>{{USC2|15|206|Standard gauge for sheet and plate iron and steel}}</ref><br>for sheet and plate<br>iron and steel<br>decimal inch (mm) !! Steel<ref name=Oberg2502>Oberg, p. 2502.</ref><br>inch (mm) !! Galvanized steel<br>inch (mm) !! Stainless steel<br>inch (mm) !! Aluminium<br>inch (mm) !! Zinc<ref name=Oberg2502/><br>inch (mm)
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| | 0000000 || {{convert|0.5000|in|mm|abbr=values}} || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ......
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| | 000000 || {{convert|0.4688|in|mm|abbr=values}} || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ......
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| | 00000 || {{convert|0.4375|in|mm|abbr=values}} || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ......
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| |-
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| | 0000 || {{convert|0.4063|in|mm|abbr=values}} || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ......
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| |-
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| | 000 || {{convert|0.3750|in|mm|abbr=values}} || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ......
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| |-
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| | 00 || {{convert|0.3438|in|mm|abbr=values}} || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ......
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| | 0 || {{convert|0.3125|in|mm|abbr=values}} || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ......
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| | 1 || {{convert|0.2813|in|mm|abbr=values}} || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ......
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| | 2 || {{convert|0.2656|in|mm|abbr=values}} || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ......
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| | 3 || {{convert|0.2500|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.2391|in|mm|abbr=values}} || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || {{convert|0.006|in|mm|abbr=values}}
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| | 4 || {{convert|0.2344|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.2242|in|mm|abbr=values}} || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || {{convert|0.008|in|mm|abbr=values}}
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| | 5 || {{convert|0.2188|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.2092|in|mm|abbr=values}} || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || {{convert|0.010|in|mm|abbr=values}}
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| | 6 || {{convert|0.2031|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.1943|in|mm|abbr=values}} || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || {{convert|0.162|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.012|in|mm|abbr=values}}
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| | 7 || {{convert|0.1875|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.1793|in|mm|abbr=values}} || align="center" | ...... || {{convert|0.1875|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.1443|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.014|in|mm|abbr=values}}
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| | 8 || {{convert|0.1719|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.1644|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.1681|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.1719|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.1285|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.016|in|mm|abbr=values}}
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| |-
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| | 9 || {{convert|0.1563|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.1495|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.1532|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.1563|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.1144|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.018|in|mm|abbr=values}}
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| |-
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| | 10 || {{convert|0.1406|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.1345|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.1382|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.1406|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.1019|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.020|in|mm|abbr=values}}
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| | 11 || {{convert|0.1250|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.1196|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.1233|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.1250|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.0907|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.024|in|mm|abbr=values}}
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| | 12 || {{convert|0.1094|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.1046|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.1084|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.1094|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.0808|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.028|in|mm|abbr=values}}
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| | 13 || {{convert|0.0938|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0897|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0934|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.094|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.072|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.032|in|mm|abbr=values}}
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| | 14 || {{convert|0.0781|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0747|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0785|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0781|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.0641|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.036|in|mm|abbr=values}}
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| | 15 || {{convert|0.0703|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0673|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0710|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.07|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.057|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.040|in|mm|abbr=values}}
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| | 16 || {{convert|0.0625|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0598|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0635|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0625|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.0508|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.045|in|mm|abbr=values}}
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| | 17 || {{convert|0.0563|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0538|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0575|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.056|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.045|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.050|in|mm|abbr=values}}
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| | 18 || {{convert|0.0500|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0478|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0516|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0500|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.0403|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.055|in|mm|abbr=values}}
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| | 19 || {{convert|0.0438|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0418|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0456|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.044|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.036|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.060|in|mm|abbr=values}}
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| | 20 || {{convert|0.0375|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0359|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0396|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0375|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.0320|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.070|in|mm|abbr=values}}
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| |-
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| | 21 || {{convert|0.0344|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0329|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0366|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.034|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.028|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.080|in|mm|abbr=values}}
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| |-
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| | 22 || {{convert|0.0313|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0299|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0336|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.031|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.025|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.090|in|mm|abbr=values}}
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| |-
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| | 23 || {{convert|0.0281|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0269|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0306|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.028|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.023|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.100|in|mm|abbr=values}}
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| | 24 || {{convert|0.0250|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0239|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0276|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.025|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.02|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.125|in|mm|abbr=values}}
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| |-
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| | 25 || {{convert|0.0219|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0209|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0247|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.022|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.018|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| align="center" | ......
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| |-
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| | 26 || {{convert|0.0188|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0179|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0217|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.019|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.017|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| align="center" | ......
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| |-
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| | 27 || {{convert|0.0172|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0164|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0202|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.017|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.014|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| align="center" | ......
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| |-
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| | 28 || {{convert|0.0156|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0149|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0187|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.016|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.0126|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| align="center" | ......
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| |-
| |
| | 29 || {{convert|0.0141|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0135|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0172|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.014|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.0113|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| align="center" | ......
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| |-
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| | 30 || {{convert|0.0125|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0120|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0157|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.013|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.0100|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| align="center" | ......
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| |-
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| | 31 || {{convert|0.0109|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0105|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0142|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.011|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| {{convert|0.0089|in|mm|abbr=values}}|| align="center" | ......
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| |-
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| | 32 || {{convert|0.0102|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0097|in|mm|abbr=values}} || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ......
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| | 33 || {{convert|0.0094|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0090|in|mm|abbr=values}} || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ......
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| | 34 || {{convert|0.0086|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0082|in|mm|abbr=values}} || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ......
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| | 35 || {{convert|0.0078|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0075|in|mm|abbr=values}} || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ......
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| | 36 || {{convert|0.0070|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0067|in|mm|abbr=values}} || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ......
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| | 37 || {{convert|0.0066|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0064|in|mm|abbr=values}} || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ......
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| | 38 || {{convert|0.0063|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0060|in|mm|abbr=values}} || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ...... || align="center" | ......
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| |}
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| {{clear}}
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| ===Tolerances===
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| During the [[rolling (metalworking)|rolling]] process the rollers bow slightly, which results in the sheets being thinner on the edges.<ref name="dsm"/> The tolerances in the table and attachments reflect current manufacturing practices and commercial standards and are not representative of the Manufacturer's Standard Gauge, which has no inherent tolerances.
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| {| class="wikitable" border="1" align="left"
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| |+Steel sheet metal<br />tolerances<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.coyotesteel.com/assets/img/PDFs/ASTM-ASTI_thicknessTolerance.pdf|title=ASTM-AISI Thickness Tolerance Ranges|date=CoyoteSteel.com|accessdate=20 June 2013}}</ref><ref name="dsm"/>
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| ! Gauge !! Nominal <br>[in (mm)] !! Max<br> [in (mm)] !! Min <br> [in (mm)]
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| | 10 || {{convert|0.1345|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.1405|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.1285|in|mm|abbr=values}}
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| |-
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| | 11 || {{convert|0.1196|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.1256|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.1136|in|mm|abbr=values}}
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| |-
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| | 12 || {{convert|0.1046|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.1106|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0986|in|mm|abbr=values}}
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| |-
| |
| | 14 || {{convert|0.0747|in|mm|abbr=values}} ||{{convert|0.0797|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0697|in|mm|abbr=values}}
| |
| |-
| |
| | 16 || {{convert|0.0598|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0648|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0548|in|mm|abbr=values}}
| |
| |-
| |
| | 18 || {{convert|0.0478|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0518|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0438|in|mm|abbr=values}}
| |
| |-
| |
| | 20 || {{convert|0.0359|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0389|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0329|in|mm|abbr=values}}
| |
| |-
| |
| | 22 || {{convert|0.0299|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0329|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0269|in|mm|abbr=values}}
| |
| |-
| |
| | 24 || {{convert|0.0239|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0269|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0209|in|mm|abbr=values}}
| |
| |-
| |
| | 26 || {{convert|0.0179|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0199|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0159|in|mm|abbr=values}}
| |
| |-
| |
| | 28 || {{convert|0.0149|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0169|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0129|in|mm|abbr=values}}
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable" border="1" align="left"
| |
| |+Aluminium sheet metal tolerances<ref name="dsm"/>
| |
| |-
| |
| ! rowspan=2 | Thickness<br> [in (mm)] !! colspan=2 | Sheet width
| |
| |-
| |
| ! {{convert|36|in|mm|1|abbr=values}} <br>[in (mm)]!! {{convert|48|in|mm|0|abbr=values}}<br> [in (mm)]
| |
| |-
| |
| | {{convert|0.018|–|0.028|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.002|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0025|in|mm|abbr=values}}
| |
| |-
| |
| | {{convert|0.029|–|0.036|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.002|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0025|in|mm|abbr=values}}
| |
| |-
| |
| | {{convert|0.037|–|0.045|in|mm|abbr=values}} ||{{convert| 0.0025|in|mm|abbr=values}} ||{{convert| 0.003|in|mm|abbr=values}}
| |
| |-
| |
| | {{convert|0.046|–|0.068|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.003|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.004|in|mm|abbr=values}}
| |
| |-
| |
| | {{convert|0.069|–|0.076|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.003|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.004|in|mm|abbr=values}}
| |
| |-
| |
| | {{convert|0.077|–|0.096|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0035|in|mm|abbr=values}} ||{{convert|0.004|in|mm|abbr=values}}
| |
| |-
| |
| | {{convert|0.097|–|0.108|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.004 |in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.005|in|mm|abbr=values}}
| |
| |-
| |
| | {{convert|0.109|–|0.125|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0045|in|mm|abbr=values}} ||{{convert| 0.005|in|mm|abbr=values}}
| |
| |-
| |
| | {{convert|0.126|–|0.140|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0045|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.005|in|mm|abbr=values}}
| |
| |-
| |
| | {{convert|0.141|–|0.172|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.006|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.008|in|mm|abbr=values}}
| |
| |-
| |
| | {{convert|0.173|–|0.203|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.007|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.010|in|mm|abbr=values}}
| |
| |-
| |
| | {{convert|0.204|–|0.249|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.009|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.011|in|mm|abbr=values}}
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable" border="1" align="left"
| |
| |+Stainless steel sheet metal tolerances<ref name="dsm"/>
| |
| |-
| |
| ! rowspan=2 | Thickness<br> [in (mm)] !! colspan=2 | Sheet width
| |
| |-
| |
| ! {{convert|36|in|mm|1|abbr=values}} <br> [in (mm)] !! {{convert|48|in|mm|0|abbr=values}} <br> [in (mm)]
| |
| |-
| |
| | {{convert|0.017|–|0.030|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0015 |in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.002|in|mm|abbr=values}}
| |
| |-
| |
| | {{convert|0.031|–|0.041|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.002|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.003|in|mm|abbr=values}}
| |
| |-
| |
| | {{convert|0.042|–|0.059|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.003|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.004|in|mm|abbr=values}}
| |
| |-
| |
| | {{convert|0.060|–|0.073|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.003|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0045|in|mm|abbr=values}}
| |
| |-
| |
| | {{convert|0.074|–|0.084|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.004|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0055|in|mm|abbr=values}}
| |
| |-
| |
| | {{convert|0.085|–|0.099|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.004|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.006|in|mm|abbr=values}}
| |
| |-
| |
| | {{convert|0.100|–|0.115|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.005|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.007|in|mm|abbr=values}}
| |
| |-
| |
| | {{convert|0.116|–|0.131|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.005|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0075|in|mm|abbr=values}}
| |
| |-
| |
| | {{convert|0.132|–|0.146|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.006|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.009|in|mm|abbr=values}}
| |
| |-
| |
| | {{convert|0.147|–|0.187|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.007|in|mm|abbr=values}} || {{convert|0.0105|in|mm|abbr=values}}
| |
| |}
| |
| {{clear}}
| |
| | |
| ==Forming processes==<!-- [[Sheet metal operations]] redirects here -->
| |
| | |
| ===Bending===
| |
| {{Main|Bending (metalworking)|l1=Bending}}
| |
| | |
| The equation for estimating the maximum bending force is,
| |
| | |
| <math>F_{max} = k \frac{TLt^{2}}{W}</math>,
| |
| | |
| where ''k'' is a factor taking into account several parameters including friction. ''T'' is the [[ultimate tensile strength]] of the metal. ''L'' and ''t'' are the length and thickness of the sheet metal, respectively. The variable ''W'' is the open width of a V-die or wiping die.
| |
| | |
| ===Curling===
| |
| {{Main|Curling (metalworking)|l1=Curling}}
| |
| | |
| ===Decambering===
| |
| {{Main|Decambering}}
| |
| | |
| ===Deep drawing===
| |
| {{Main|Deep drawing}}
| |
| [[File:Parts made by deep drawing - 20100630.jpg|thumb|Example of deep drawn part]]
| |
| | |
| Drawing is a forming process in which the metal is stretched over a form. In deep drawing the depth of the part being made is more than half its diameter. Deep drawing is used for making automotive fuel tanks, kitchen sinks, two-piece [[aluminum can]]s, etc. Deep drawing is generally done in multiple steps called draw reductions. The greater the depth the more reductions are required. Deep drawing may also be accomplished with fewer reductions by heating the workpiece, for example in sink manufacture.
| |
| | |
| In many cases, material is rolled at the mill in both directions to aid in deep drawing. This leads to a more uniform grain structure which limits tearing and is referred to as "draw quality" material.
| |
| | |
| ===Expanding===
| |
| {{Main|Expanded sheet metal}}
| |
| Expanding is a process of cutting or stamping slits in alternating pattern much like the stretcher bond in [[brickwork]] and then stretching the sheet open in accordion-like fashion. It is used in applications where air and water flow are desired as well as when light weight is desired at cost of a solid flat surface. A similar process is used in other materials such as paper to create a low cost packing paper with better supportive properties than flat paper alone.
| |
| | |
| ===Incremental sheet forming===
| |
| {{Main|Incremental sheet forming}}
| |
| | |
| ===Ironing===
| |
| {{Main|Ironing (metalworking)|l1=Ironing}}
| |
| | |
| ===Laser cutting===
| |
| {{Main|Laser cutting}}
| |
| | |
| Sheet metal can be cut in various ways, from hand tools called [[tin snips]] up to very large powered shears. With the advances in technology, sheet metal cutting has turned to computers for precise cutting. Many sheet metal cutting operations are based on computer numerically controlled (CNC) laser cutting or multi-tool CNC punch press.
| |
| | |
| CNC laser involves moving a lens assembly carrying a beam of laser light over the surface of the metal. Oxygen, nitrogen or air is fed through the same nozzle from which the laser beam exits. The metal is heated and burnt by the laser beam, cutting the metal sheet. The quality of the edge can be mirror smooth and a precision of around {{convert|0.1|mm|in|abbr=on}} can be obtained. Cutting speeds on thin {{convert|1.2|mm|in|abbr=on}} sheet can be as high as {{convert|25|m|ft|abbr=on}} a minute. Most of the laser cutting systems use a CO2 based laser source with a wavelength of around 10 [[µm]]; some more recent systems use a YAG based laser with a wavelength of around 1 µm.
| |
| | |
| ===Perforating===
| |
| {{Main|Perforating}}
| |
| | |
| Perforating is a cutting process that punches multiple small holes close together in a flat workpiece. Perforated sheet metal is used to make a wide variety of surface cutting tools, such as the [[surform]].
| |
| | |
| ===Press brake forming===
| |
| [[File:Biegeanimation 3D.gif|thumb|right|Forming metal on a pressbrake]]
| |
| | |
| This is a form of [[Bending (metalworking)|bending]] used to produce long, thin sheet metal parts. The machine that bends the metal is called a [[Brake press|press brake]]. The lower part of the press contains a V-shaped groove called the die. The upper part of the press contains a punch that presses the sheet metal down into the v-shaped die, causing it to bend. There are several techniques used, but the most common modern method is "air bending". Here, the die has a sharper angle than the required bend (typically 85 degrees for a 90 degree bend) and the upper tool is precisely controlled in its stroke to push the metal down the required amount to bend it through 90 degrees. Typically, a general purpose machine has an available bending force of around 25 tonnes per metre of length. The opening width of the lower die is typically 8 to 10 times the thickness of the metal to be bent (for example, 5 mm material could be bent in a 40 mm die). The inner radius of the bend formed in the metal is determined not by the radius of the upper tool, but by the lower die width. Typically, the inner radius is equal to 1/6 of the V-width used in the forming process.
| |
| | |
| The press usually has some sort of [[back gauge]] to position depth of the bend along the workpiece. The backgauge can be computer controlled to allow the operator to make a series of bends in a component to a high degree of accuracy. Simple machines control only the backstop, more advanced machines control the position and angle of the stop, its height and the position of the two reference pegs used to locate the material. The machine can also record the exact position and pressure required for each bending operation to allow the operator to achieve a perfect 90 degree bend across a variety of operations on the part.
| |
| | |
| ===Punching===
| |
| {{Main|Punching}}
| |
| | |
| Punching is performed by placing the sheet of metal stock between a punch and a die mounted in a press. The punch and die are made of hardened steel and are the same shape. The punch just barely fits into the die. The press pushes the punch against and into the die with enough force to cut a hole in the stock. In some cases the punch and die "nest" together to create a depression in the stock. In [[progressive stamping]] a coil of stock is fed into a long die/punch set with many stages. Multiple simple shaped holes may be produced in one stage, but complex holes are created in multiple stages. In the final stage, the part is punched free from the "web".
| |
| | |
| A typical CNC [[turret punch]] has a choice of up to 60 tools in a "turret" that can be rotated to bring any tool to the punching position. A simple shape (e.g., a square, circle, or hexagon) is cut directly from the sheet. A complex shape can be cut out by making many square or rounded cuts around the perimeter. A punch is less flexible than a laser for cutting compound shapes, but faster for repetitive shapes (for example, the grille of an air-conditioning unit). A CNC punch can achieve 600 strokes per minute.
| |
| | |
| A typical component (such as the side of a computer case) can be cut to high precision from a blank sheet in under 15 seconds by either a [[Machine press|press]] or a laser CNC machine.
| |
| | |
| ===Roll forming===
| |
| {{Main|Roll forming}}
| |
| | |
| A continuous bending operation for producing open profiles or welded tubes with long lengths or in large quantities.
| |
| | |
| ===Rolling===
| |
| [[File:Rundwalzen.png|thumb|Bending sheet metal with rollers]]
| |
| {{Main|Rolling (metalworking)|l1=Rolling}}
| |
| | |
| ===Spinning===
| |
| {{Main|Metal spinning}}
| |
| | |
| Spinning is used to make tubular(axis-symmetric) parts by fixing a piece of sheet stock to a rotating form ([[mandrel]]). Rollers or rigid tools press the stock against the form, stretching it until the stock takes the shape of the form. Spinning is used to make rocket motor casings, missile nose cones, satellite dishes and metal kitchen funnels.
| |
| | |
| ===Stamping===
| |
| {{Main|Stamping (metalworking)|l1=Stamping}}
| |
| Stamping includes a variety of operations such as punching, blanking, embossing, bending, flanging, and coining; simple or complex shapes can be formed at high production rates; tooling and equipment costs can be high, but labor costs are low.
| |
| | |
| Alternatively, the related techniques [[repoussé and chasing]] have low tooling and equipment costs, but high labor costs.
| |
| | |
| ===Water jet cutting===
| |
| {{Main|Water jet cutter|l1=Water jet cutting}}
| |
| A water jet cutter, also known as a waterjet, is a tool capable of a controlled erosion into metal or other materials using a jet of water at high velocity and pressure, or a mixture of water and an abrasive substance.
| |
| | |
| ===Wheeling===
| |
| {{Main|Wheeling (metalworking)|l1=Wheeling}}
| |
| | |
| ==Fasteners==
| |
| Fasteners that are commonly used on sheet metal include:
| |
| | |
| *[[Cleko]]s
| |
| *[[Rivet]]s
| |
| *[[Sheet metal screw]]s
| |
| | |
| ==See also==
| |
| *[[Circle grid analysis]]
| |
| *[[Diamond plate]]
| |
| * [[Forming limit diagram]]
| |
| *[[Strip steel]]
| |
| *[[Temper mill]]
| |
| | |
| ==References==
| |
| {{reflist|33em}}
| |
| | |
| ===Bibliography===
| |
| *{{cite book | author = Oberg, et al. | year = 2004 | title = [[Machinery's Handbook]] | edition = 27th | location = New York | publisher = [[Industrial Press]] | isbn = 0-8311-2700-7}}
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| | |
| ==External links==
| |
| {{Commons category|Sheet metal}}
| |
| *{{cite web |url=http://www.steelmarketupdate.com/modules/pages/content/index.cfm?pageId=36 |title=Manufacturers Standard Gauge History |publisher=Steel Market Update}}
| |
| *{{cite web |url=http://www.cssbi.ca/Eng/_pdf/CSSBI-Facts10.pdf |title=Sheet Steel Gauges and Thicknesses |work=Sheet Steel Facts |publisher=Canadian Sheet Steel Building Institute |date=April 2009}}
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| | |
| {{Metalworking navbox|formopen}}
| |
| | |
| {{DEFAULTSORT:Sheet Metal}}
| |
| [[Category:Metal forming]]
| |
| [[Category:Fabrication (metal)]]
| |