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'''Nucleic acid structure''' refers to the [[Biomolecular structure|structure]] of [[nucleic acid]]s such as [[DNA]] and [[RNA]].  Chemically speaking, DNA and RNA are very similar. Nucleic acid structure is often divided into four different levels primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary.
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At the time, Janet lived in a flat above the Salvo’s Op shop in Elizabeth St, North Hobart. I had organized to pick up the rifle on a Saturday night time. The transaction was simple with no paper work being required for possession of rim-fire rifles in those occasions.<br><br>Wholesale knife distributors are aggressive promoting their wholesale knives and wholesale pocket knives – just like some other enterprise. The wholesale knife distributors that promote wholesale knives and pocket knives to giant hunting, tenting and other outside retail shops and retail chains cater only to the big guys. That's their aggressive niche. Different wholesale knife distributors are nicely aware of this – and so they need their area of interest similar to everybody else. A wholesale knife distributor that dropships will sell wholesale knives and pocket knives in small quantities, and can even offer direct transport from the wholesale distributors location to your buyer's deliverable address.<br><br>A pop-up camper may also help provide a enjoyable and easy camping experience. They are typically durable and straightforward to arrange and clean. However, there may be nothing enjoyable a few pop-up camper with a tear within the canvas. A tear in your pop-up camper makes you [http://esmikorea.ezconn.net/xe/?document_srl=74705 susceptible] [http://www.thebestpocketknifereviews.com/best-skinning-knife-choose-the-best-model/ Www.thebestpocketknifereviews.Com] to insects and rain water. To avoid sleeping in moist situations with a ton of mosquitoes, maintain your camper in good condition. Fortuitously, fixing a tear in the canvas of a pop-up camper is an easy course of. All you want is a tent repair package and two hours.<br><br>In contrast to my enduring Estwing hammer, pocket knives and multi-instruments have come and gone over the years. My first memory of a often carried knife, was not from my childhood but within the early years of my passionate and enduring dedication to a self-reliant and moral way of life. It was a two bladed Rogers Bunny Knife, a basic simple pocket knife that symbolised my then, newly discovered, curiosity in ecological looking. Permaculture History This movie and knife want no introduction. One of the greatest and most famous Aussie movie in all the world stars one man, Paul Hogan, taking on the world with one software. His knife!<br><br>I don’t buy loads of custom-made knives for myself. The prices are too steep and there alwaysseems to be a better use of the funds. This show was completely different. PhilBooth from Ithaca Michigan makes little folding knives he calls Twerps. Phil had two Twerps and I later bought the highest one. I liked the general look of the highest one higher. If the lower one had a ending bar within the groove I might have purchased that one as an alternative. THOMASVILLE, N.C. — Deputies say an adolescent from Thomasville was arrested over the weekend after he assaulted a handicapped person and stabbed his father with a pocket knife.<br><br>Some of my most irritating experiences in presenting have been in larger institutional venues where regulations and demarcation guidelines forestall you from being self-reliant. Within the absence of the authorised person, your presentation can fail resulting from bureaucratic processes that leave everybody disempowered. On a couple of occasion I have ignored guidelines and made minor physical modification of techniques to permit a presentation to proceed. Having my Leatherman on hand has been essential. When establishing displays, especially at out of doors venues dealing with wind and weather, my Leatherman, some blue-tack, twine and gaffer tape, have solved surprising issues on many occasions.<br><br>As well as foraging on the commons, gleaning unwanted or wasted meals from private land is an ancient custom that has been reinvigorated as part of permaculture. When we harvest fallen fruit and wasted meals we often want a knife to chop off dangerous bits or decide nut pieces out of broken shells. The problem [http://www.thebestpocketknifereviews.com/best-skinning-knife-choose-the-best-model/ Gut Hook Skinning Knife] with the growing perception that sees “knives” as weapons and seeks to make use of them in defence or aggression, is that this perception is self-fulfilling. Equally, the need to control knives, and even guns, begins from the premise that their primary, and at last, only use, is [http://ielaw.uibe.edu.cn/wiki/index.php/Outdoor_Edge_Skinning_Knife violence directed] at other persons.
 
== Primary structure ==
{{Main|Nucleic acid sequence}}
[[File:DNA-Nucleobases.svg|thumb|Chemical structure of DNA]]
 
Primary structure consists of a linear sequence of nucleotides that are linked together by phosphodiester bonds. It is this linear sequence of nucleotides that make up the primary structure of [[DNA]] or [[RNA]].  Nucleotides consist of 3 components:
#  Nitrogenous base
## [[Adenine]]
## [[Guanine]]
## [[Cytosine]]
## [[Thymine]](present in [[DNA]] only)
## [[Uracil]] (present in [[RNA]] only)
# 5-carbon sugar which is called deoxyribose (found in DNA) and ribose (found in RNA).
# One or more phosphate groups.<ref name=Krieger_2004>{{cite book | author = Krieger M, Scott MP, Matsudaira PT, Lodish HF, Darnell JE, Lawrence Z, Kaiser C, Berk A| title = Molecular cell biology | publisher = W.H. Freeman and CO | location = New York | year = 2004 | pages = | isbn = 0-7167-4366-3 | chapter = Section 4.1: Structure of Nucleic Acids | chapterurl = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21514/ }}</ref>
 
The nitrogen bases adenine and guanine are [[purine]] in structure and form a [[glycosidic bond]] between their 9' nitrogen and the 1' -OH group of the deoxyribose. Cytosine, thymine and uracil are [[pyrimidines]], hence the glycosidic bonds forms between their 1' nitrogen and the 1' -OH of the deoxyribose. For both the purine and pyrimidine bases, the phosphate group forms a bond with the deoxyribose sugar through an ester bond between one of its negatively charged oxygen groups and the 5' -OH of the sugar.<ref name=Sparknotes>{{cite web | url = http://www.sparknotes.com/biology/molecular/structureofnucleicacids/ | title = Structure of Nucleic Acids | format = | work = SparkNotes  }}</ref> The polarity in DNA and RNA is derived from the oxygen and nitrogen atoms in the backbone. Nucleic acids are formed when nucleotides come together through phosphodiester linkages between the 5' and 3' carbon atoms.<ref name=Anthony-Cahill_2012>{{cite book | author = Anthony-Cahill SJ; Mathews CK, van Holde KE, Appling DR | title = Biochemistry (4th Edition) | publisher = Prentice Hall | location = Englewood Cliffs, N.J | year = 2012 | pages = | isbn = 0-13-800464-1 }}</ref>
A [[Nucleic acid sequence]] is the order of nucleotides within a DNA (GACT) or RNA (GACU) molecule that is determined by a series of letters.  Sequences are presented from the 5' to 3' end and determine the covalent structure of the entire molecule. Sequences can be [[complementary]] to another sequence in that the base on each position is complementary as well as in the reverse order. An example of a complementary sequence to AGCT is TCGA. DNA is double-stranded containing both a [[sense]] strand and an [[antisense]] strand.  Therefore, the complementary sequence will be to the sense strand.<ref name=Alberts_20022>{{cite book | author = Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K & Wlater P  | title = Molecular Biology of the Cell (4th ed.)| publisher = Garland Science | location = New York NY | year = 2002 | isbn = 0-8153-3218-1 }}</ref>
 
[[Image:Mao-4armjunction-schematic.png|thumb|250px|Nucleic acid design can be used to create nucleic acid complexes with complicated [[Nucleic acid secondary structure|secondary structures]] such as this four-arm junction.  These four strands associate into this structure because it maximizes the number of correct [[base pair]]s, with [[Adenine|A]]'s matched to [[Thymine|T]]'s and [[Cytosine|C]]'s matched to [[Guanine|G]]'s. Image from Mao, 2004.<ref name="Mao04">{{cite journal |last=Mao |first=Chengde |authorlink= |date=December 2004 |title=The Emergence of Complexity: Lessons from DNA |journal=[[PLOS Biology]] |volume=2 |issue=12 |pages=2036–2038 |issn=1544-9173|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0020431 |pmc=535573 |pmid=15597116}}</ref>]]
 
== Secondary structure ==
{{Main|Nucleic acid secondary structure}}
 
Secondary structure is the set of interactions between bases, i.e., parts of which is strands are bound to each other. In DNA double helix, the two strands of DNA are held together by [[hydrogen bond]]s. The [[nucleotide]]s on one strand [[base pair]]s with the nucleotide on the other strand. The secondary structure is responsible for the shape that the nucleic acid assumes. The bases in the DNA are classified as [[Purines]] and [[Pyrimidines]]. The purines are [[Adenine]] and [[Guanine]]. Purines consist of a double ring structure, a six membered and a five membered ring containing nitrogen. The pyrimidine are [[Cytosine]] and [[Thymine]]. It has a single ringed structure, a six membered ring containing nitrogen. A purine base always pairs with a pyrimidine base (Guanosine (G) pairs with Cytosine(C)and Adenine(A) pairs with Thymine (T) or [[Uracil]] (U). DNA's secondary structure is predominantly determined by [[base-pairing]] of the two polynucleotide strands wrapped around each other to form a [[double helix]]. There is also a [[major groove]] and a [[minor groove]] on the double helix.
 
The secondary structure of RNA consists of a single polynucleotide.  Base pairing in RNA occurs when RNA folds between complementarity regions.  Both single- and double-stranded regions are often found in RNA molecules.  The antiparallel strands form a helical shape.<ref name=Anthony-Cahill_2012/> The four basic elements in the secondary structure of RNA are helices, loops, bulges, and junctions. [[Stem-loop]] or hairpin loop is the most common element of RNA secondary structure.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Tinoco I|first=Jr|coauthors=Bustamante, C|title=How RNA folds.|journal=Journal of Molecular Biology|date=Oct 22, 1999|volume=293|issue=2|pages=271–81|pmid=10550208|doi=10.1006/jmbi.1999.3001}}</ref>  [[Stem-loop]] is formed when the RNA chains fold back on themselves to form a double helical tract called the stem, the unpaired nucleotides forms single stranded region called the loop.<ref name="RNA structure">{{cite web|title=RNA structure (Molecular Biology)|url=http://what-when-how.com/molecular-biology/rna-structure-molecular-biology/}}</ref>  Secondary structure of RNA can be predicted by experimental data on the secondary structure elements, helices, loops and bulges. Bulges and internal loops are formed by separation of the double helical tract on either one strand (bulge) or on both strands (internal loops) by unpaired nucleotides. A [[Tetraloop]] is a four-base pairs hairpin RNA structure. There are three common families of tetraloop in ribosomal RNA: UNCG, GNRA, and CUUG (N is one of the four nucleotides and R is a purine).UNCG is the most stable tetraloop.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hollyfield|first=JG|coauthors=Besharse, JC; Rayborn, ME|title=The effect of light on the quantity of phagosomes in the pigment epithelium.|journal=Experimental eye research|date=December 1976|volume=23|issue=6|pages=623–35|pmid=1087245|doi=10.1016/0014-4835(76)90221-9}}</ref> [[Pseudoknot]] is a RNA secondary structure first identified in turnip yellow mosaic virus.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Rietveld|first=K|coauthors=Van Poelgeest, R; Pleij, CW; Van Boom, JH; Bosch, L|title=The tRNA-like structure at the 3' terminus of turnip yellow mosaic virus RNA. Differences and similarities with canonical tRNA|journal=Nucleic Acids Research|date=Mar 25, 1982|volume=10|issue=6|pages=1929–46|pmid=7079175|doi=10.1093/nar/10.6.1929|pmc=320581}}</ref>  Pseudoknots are formed when nucleotides from the hairpin loop pairs with a single stranded region outside of the hairpin to form a helical segment. H-type fold pseudoknots are best characterized. In H-type fold, nucleotides in the hairpin loop pairs with the bases outside the hairpin stem forming second stem and loop. This causes formation of pseudoknots with two stems and two loops.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Staple|first=DW|coauthors=Butcher, SE|title=Pseudoknots: RNA structures with diverse functions|journal=PLoS Biology|date=June 2005|volume=3|issue=6|pages=e213|pmid=15941360|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0030213|pmc=1149493}}</ref>  Pseudoknots are functional elements in RNA structure having diverse function and found in most classes of RNA. DotKnot-PW method is used for comparative pseudoknots prediction .The main points in the DotKnot-PW method is scoring the similarities found in stems, secondary elements and H-type pseudoknots.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Sperschneider|first=J|coauthors=Datta, A; Wise, MJ|title=Predicting pseudoknotted structures across two RNA sequences|journal=Bioinformatics (Oxford, England)|date=Dec 1, 2012|volume=28|issue=23|pages=3058–65|pmid=23044552|doi=10.1093/bioinformatics/bts575|pmc=3516145}}</ref>
 
== Tertiary structure ==
{{main|Nucleic acid tertiary structure}}
[[File:DNA structure and bases.svg|thumb|right|DNA structure and bases]]
[[File:A-B-Z-DNA Side View.png|thumb|right|A-B-Z-DNA Side View]]
 
Tertiary structure is the locations of the atoms in three-dimensional space, taking into consideration geometrical and [[steric]] constraints. A higher order than the secondary structure in which large-scale folding in a linear polymer occurs and the entire chain is folded into a specific 3-dimensional shape.  There are 4 areas in which the structural forms of DNA can differ.
#Handedness - right or left
#Length of the helix turn
#Number of base pairs per turn
#Difference in size between the major and minor grooves<ref name=Anthony-Cahill_2012/>
 
The tertiary arrangement of DNA's [[double helix]] in space includes [[B-DNA]], [[A-DNA]] and [[Z-DNA]].
 
[[B-DNA]] is the most common form of DNA in vivo and is more narrow, elongated helix than A-DNA. Its wide major groove makes it more accessible to proteins. On the other hand, it has a narrow minor groove. B-DNAs favored conformations occurs at high water concentrations and the hydration of the minor groove appears to favor B-DNA. B-DNA base pairs nearly perpendicular to helix axis. The sugar pucker which determines the shape of the a-helix, whether the helix will exist in the A-form or in the B-form occurs at the C2'-endo.<ref name=Dickerson_1982>{{cite journal | author = Dickerson RE, Drew HR, Conner BN, Wing RM, Fratini AV, Kopka ML | title = The anatomy of A-, B-, and Z-DNA | journal = Science | volume = 216 | issue = 4545 | pages = 475–85 |date=April 1982 | pmid = 7071593 | doi = 10.1126/science.7071593}}</ref>
 
[[A-DNA]] is shorter and wider than helix B.  Most RNA and RNA-DNA duplex in this form.  A-DNA has a deep, narrow major groove which does not make it easily accessible to proteins. On the other hand, its wide, shallow minor groove makes it accessible to proteins but with lower information content than the major groove. Its favored conformation is at low water concentrations. A-DNAs base pairs tilt to helix axis and are displaced from axis.  The sugar pucker occurs at the C3'-endo and in RNA 2'-OH inhibits C2'-endo conformation.<ref name=Dickerson_1982/>
 
[[Z-DNA]] is a relatively rare left-handed double-helix. Given the proper sequence and superhelical tension, it can be formed in vivo but its function is unclear. It has a more narrow, more elongated helix than A or B. Z-DNA's major groove is not really groove and it has a narrow minor groove.  The most favored conformation occurs when there are high salt concentrations.  There are some base substitutions but requires an alternating purine-pyrimidine sequence. The N2-amino of G H-bonds to 5' PO which explains the slow exchange of protons and the need for the G purine. Z-DNA base pairs nearly perpendicular to the helix axis. Z-DNA does not contain single base-pairs but rather a GpC repeat with P-P distances varying for GpC and CpG.  On the GpC stack there is good base overlap whereas on the CpG stack there is less overlap. Z-DNA's zigzag backbone is due to the C sugar conformation compensating for G glycosidic bond conformation. The conformation of G is syn, C2'-endo
and for C it is anti, C3'-endo.<ref name=Dickerson_1982/>
 
Linear DNA molecule having free ends can rotate to adjust to changes of various dynamic processes in the cell by changing the number of times two chains of the double helix twist around each other. Some DNA molecules are circular and are topologically constrained. A covalently closed, circular DNA also known as cccDNA is topologically constrained as the number of times the chains coiled around one other cannot change. This cccDNA can be supercoiled which is the tertiary structure of DNA. Supercoiling is characterized by the linking number, twist and writhe. The Linking number Lk for circular DNA is defined as the number of times one strand would have to pass through the other strand to completely separate the two strands. The linking number for circular DNA can only be changed by breaking of a covalent bond in one of the two strands. Linking number is always an integer. The Linking number of a cccDNA is sum of two components twists (Tw) and writhes (Wr).<ref name=Mirkin_2001>{{cite journal | author = Mirkin SM | title = DNA Topology: Fundamentals | journal = Encyclopedia of Life Sciences | year = 2001 | doi = 10.1038/npg.els.0001038 | isbn = 0470016175 }}</ref>
:<math>Lk = Tw + Wr</math>
Twists are the number of times the two strands of DNA are twisted around each other. Writhes are number of times the DNA helix crosses over itself. DNA in cell is negatively supercoiled and has the tendency to unwind. Hence the separation of strand is easier in negatively supercoiled DNA than the relaxed DNA. The two component of supercoiled DNA, are [[solenoid]] and plectonemic. The plectonemic supercoil is found in prokaryotes and the solenoidal supercoiling is mostly seen in eukaryotes.
 
== Quaternary structure ==
{{main|Nucleic acid quaternary structure}}
 
[[File:DNA to Chromatin Formation.jpg|thumbnail|right|DNA to Chromatin]]
 
The quaternary structure of nucleic acids is similar to that of [[protein quaternary structure]].  Although some of the concepts are not exactly the same, the quaternary structure refers to a higher-level of organization of nucleic acids. Moreover, it refers to interactions of the nucleic acids with other molecules. The most commonly seen form of higher-level organization of nucleic acids is seen in the form of [[chromatin]] which leads to its interactions with the small proteins [[histones]]. Also, the quaternary structure refers to the interactions between separate RNA units in the [[ribosome]] or [[spliceosome]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Strucual Biochemistry/Nucleic Acid/DNA/DNA Structure|url=http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Structural_Biochemistry/Nucleic_Acid/DNA/DNA_structure|accessdate=11 December 2012}}</ref>
 
== Notes and references ==
{{Reflist|2}}
 
==See also==
* [[Nucleic acid double helix]]
* [[Nucleic acid structure determination]] (experimental)
* [[Nucleic acid structure prediction]] (computational)
* [[DNA nanotechnology]]
* [[Nucleic acid design]]
* [[Nucleic acid thermodynamics]]
* [[Crosslinking of DNA]]
* [[Non-helical models of DNA structure]]
* [[DNA supercoil]]
 
{{Biomolecular structure}}
 
[[Category:DNA]]
[[Category:RNA]]

Latest revision as of 05:02, 2 December 2014

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The nature of this psycho-social poison from televised violence was highlighted for me by an expertise in Tasmania in the late 1970’s that I've retold many occasions. I had arranged to buy the22 calibre rifle that I still personal as a “licensed weapon” from Janet Mollison (Invoice Mollison’s oldest daughter who was my very own age). At the time, Janet lived in a flat above the Salvo’s Op shop in Elizabeth St, North Hobart. I had organized to pick up the rifle on a Saturday night time. The transaction was simple with no paper work being required for possession of rim-fire rifles in those occasions.

Wholesale knife distributors are aggressive promoting their wholesale knives and wholesale pocket knives – just like some other enterprise. The wholesale knife distributors that promote wholesale knives and pocket knives to giant hunting, tenting and other outside retail shops and retail chains cater only to the big guys. That's their aggressive niche. Different wholesale knife distributors are nicely aware of this – and so they need their area of interest similar to everybody else. A wholesale knife distributor that dropships will sell wholesale knives and pocket knives in small quantities, and can even offer direct transport from the wholesale distributors location to your buyer's deliverable address.

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In contrast to my enduring Estwing hammer, pocket knives and multi-instruments have come and gone over the years. My first memory of a often carried knife, was not from my childhood but within the early years of my passionate and enduring dedication to a self-reliant and moral way of life. It was a two bladed Rogers Bunny Knife, a basic simple pocket knife that symbolised my then, newly discovered, curiosity in ecological looking. Permaculture History This movie and knife want no introduction. One of the greatest and most famous Aussie movie in all the world stars one man, Paul Hogan, taking on the world with one software. His knife!

I don’t buy loads of custom-made knives for myself. The prices are too steep and there alwaysseems to be a better use of the funds. This show was completely different. PhilBooth from Ithaca Michigan makes little folding knives he calls Twerps. Phil had two Twerps and I later bought the highest one. I liked the general look of the highest one higher. If the lower one had a ending bar within the groove I might have purchased that one as an alternative. THOMASVILLE, N.C. — Deputies say an adolescent from Thomasville was arrested over the weekend after he assaulted a handicapped person and stabbed his father with a pocket knife.

Some of my most irritating experiences in presenting have been in larger institutional venues where regulations and demarcation guidelines forestall you from being self-reliant. Within the absence of the authorised person, your presentation can fail resulting from bureaucratic processes that leave everybody disempowered. On a couple of occasion I have ignored guidelines and made minor physical modification of techniques to permit a presentation to proceed. Having my Leatherman on hand has been essential. When establishing displays, especially at out of doors venues dealing with wind and weather, my Leatherman, some blue-tack, twine and gaffer tape, have solved surprising issues on many occasions.

As well as foraging on the commons, gleaning unwanted or wasted meals from private land is an ancient custom that has been reinvigorated as part of permaculture. When we harvest fallen fruit and wasted meals we often want a knife to chop off dangerous bits or decide nut pieces out of broken shells. The problem Gut Hook Skinning Knife with the growing perception that sees “knives” as weapons and seeks to make use of them in defence or aggression, is that this perception is self-fulfilling. Equally, the need to control knives, and even guns, begins from the premise that their primary, and at last, only use, is violence directed at other persons.