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In [[formal language theory]], a  '''context-free language''' (CFL) is a [[formal language|language]] generated by some [[context-free grammar]] (CFG). Different CF grammars can generate the same CF language, or conversely, a given CF language can be generated by different CF grammars. It is important to distinguish properties of the language (intrinsic properties) from properties of a particular grammar (extrinsic properties).


The set of all context-free languages is identical to the set of languages accepted by [[pushdown automata]], which makes these languages amenable to parsing. Indeed, given a CFG, there is a direct way to produce a pushdown automaton for the grammar (and corresponding language), though going the other way (producing a grammar given an automaton) is not as direct.
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Context-free languages have many applications in [[programming languages]]; for example, the [[Dyck language|language of all properly matched parentheses]] is generated by the grammar <math>S\to SS ~|~ (S) ~|~ \varepsilon</math>.  Also, most arithmetic expressions are generated by context-free grammars.
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An archetypical context-free language is <math>L = \{a^nb^n:n\geq1\}</math>, the language of all non-empty even-length strings, the entire first halves of which are <math>a</math>'s, and the entire second halves of which are <math>b</math>'s. <math>L</math> is generated by the grammar <math>S\to aSb ~|~ ab</math>, and is accepted by the pushdown automaton <math>M=(\{q_0,q_1,q_f\}, \{a,b\}, \{a,z\}, \delta, q_0, z, \{q_f\})</math> where <math>\delta</math> is defined as follows:
 
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<center>
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<math>\delta(q_0, a, z) = (q_0, az)</math><br>
<math>\delta(q_0, a, a) = (q_0, aa)</math><br>
<math>\delta(q_0, b, a) = (q_1, \varepsilon)</math><br>
<math>\delta(q_1, b, a) = (q_1, \varepsilon)</math>


<math>\delta(\mathrm{state}_1, \mathrm{read}, \mathrm{pop}) = (\mathrm{state}_2, \mathrm{push})</math>
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Unambiguous CFLs are a proper subset of all CFLs: there are [[Inherently ambiguous language|inherently ambiguous]] CFLs. An example of an inherently ambiguous CFL is the union of <math>\{a^n b^m c^m d^n | n, m > 0\}</math> with <math>\{a^n b^n c^m d^m | n, m > 0\}</math>. This set is context-free, since the union of two context-free languages is always context-free. But there is no way to unambiguously parse strings in the (non-context-free) subset <math>\{a^n b^n c^n d^n | n > 0\}</math> which is the intersection of these two languages.{{sfn|Hopcroft|Ullman|1979}}
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The set <math>\{a^n b^n c^n d^n | n > 0\}</math> is a [[context-sensitive language]], but there does not exist a context-free grammar generating this language.{{sfn|Hopcroft|Ullman|1979}} So there exist [[context-sensitive language]]s which are not context-free. To prove that a given language is not context-free, one may employ the [[pumping lemma for context-free languages]] or a number of other methods, such as [[Ogden's lemma]] or [[Parikh's theorem]].<ref>[http://cs.stackexchange.com/questions/265/how-to-prove-that-a-language-is-not-context-free How to prove that a language is not context-free?]</ref>
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Context-free languages are [[closure (mathematics)|closed]] under the following operations. That is, if ''L'' and ''P'' are context-free languages, the following languages are context-free as well:
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* the [[union (set theory)|union]] <math>L \cup P</math> of ''L'' and ''P''
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* the reversal of ''L''
    
* the [[concatenation]] <math>L \cdot P</math> of ''L'' and ''P''
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* the [[Kleene star]] <math>L^*</math> of ''L''
 
* the image <math>\varphi(L)</math> of ''L'' under a [[String operations#String homomorphism|homomorphism]] <math>\varphi</math>
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* the image <math>\varphi^{-1}(L)</math> of ''L'' under an [[String operations#String homomorphism|inverse homomorphism]] <math>\varphi^{-1}</math>
 
* the [[cyclic shift]] of ''L'' (the language <math>\{vu : uv \in L \}</math>)
</ul>
 
Context-free languages are not closed under [[complement (complexity)|complement]], [[intersection (set theory)|intersection]], or [[Complement (set theory)#Relative complement|difference]]. However, if ''L'' is a context-free language and ''D'' is a regular language then both their intersection <math>L\cap D</math> and their difference <math>L\setminus D</math> are context-free languages.
 
===Nonclosure under intersection and complement===
 
The context-free languages are not closed under intersection.  This can be seen by taking the languages <math>A = \{a^n b^n c^m \mid m, n \geq 0 \}</math> and <math>B = \{a^m b^n c^n \mid m,n \geq 0\}</math>, which are both context-free.<ref>A context-free grammar for the language ''A'' is given by the following production rules, taking ''S'' as the start symbol: ''S'' → ''Sc'' | ''aTb'' | ''ε''; ''T'' → ''aTb'' | ''ε''. The grammar for B is analogous.</ref> Their intersection is <math>A \cap B = \{ a^n b^n c^n \mid n \geq 0\}</math>, which can be shown to be non-context-free by the [[pumping lemma for context-free languages]].
 
Context-free languages are also not closed under complementation, as for any languages A and B: <math>A \cap B = \overline{\overline{A} \cup \overline{B}} </math>.
 
==Decidability properties==
 
The following problems are [[Undecidable problem|undecidable]] for arbitrary [[context-free grammar]]s A and B:
*Equivalence: Given two context-free grammars ''A'' and ''B'', is <math>L(A)=L(B)</math>?
*Intersection Emptiness: Given two context-free grammars ''A'' and ''B'', is <math>L(A) \cap L(B) = \emptyset </math> ? However, the intersection of a context-free language and a ''regular'' language is context-free,<ref>{{harvtxt|Salomaa|1973}}, p. 59, Theorem 6.7</ref> and the variant of the problem where ''B'' is a regular grammar is decidable.
*Containment: Given a context-free grammar ''A'', is <math>L(A) \subseteq L(B)</math> ? Again, the variant of the problem where ''B'' is a regular grammar is decidable.
*Universality: Given a context-free grammar ''A'', is <math>L(A)=\Sigma^*</math> ?
 
The following problems are ''decidable'' for arbitrary context-free languages:
*Emptiness: Given a context-free grammar ''A'', is <math>L(A)=\emptyset</math> ?
*Finiteness: Given a context-free grammar ''A'', is <math>L(A)</math> finite?
*Membership: Given a context-free grammar ''G'', and a word <math>w</math>, does <math>w \in L(G)</math> ? Efficient polynomial-time algorithms for the membership problem are the [[CYK algorithm]] and [[Earley parser|Earley's Algorithm]].
 
== Parsing ==
 
Determining an instance of the membership problem; i.e. given a string <math>w</math>, determine whether <math>w \in L(G)</math> where <math>L</math> is the language generated by some grammar <math>G</math>; is also known as ''[[parsing]]''.
 
Formally, the set of all context-free languages is identical to the set of languages accepted by [[pushdown automata]] (PDA). Parser algorithms for context-free languages include the [[CYK algorithm]] and the [[Earley parser|Earley's Algorithm]].
 
A special subclass of context-free languages are the [[deterministic context-free language]]s which are defined as the set of languages accepted by a [[deterministic pushdown automaton]] and can be parsed by a [[LR parser|LR(k) parser]].<ref>{{cite doi|10.1016/S0019-9958(65)90426-2}}</ref>
 
See also [[parsing expression grammar]] as an alternative approach to grammar and parser.
 
== See also ==
* [[Deterministic context-free language]]
* [[Parsing]]
 
== Notes ==
{{Reflist}}
 
== References ==
 
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book| author = [[Seymour Ginsburg]] | title = The Mathematical Theory of Context-Free Languages | year = 1966 | publisher = McGraw-Hill, Inc. | location = New York, NY, USA}}
*{{cite book
  | last1 = Hopcroft
  | first1 = John E.
  | last2 = Ullman
  | first2 = Jeffrey D.
  | title = Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages, and Computation
  | publisher = Addison-Wesley
  | edition = 1st
   | year = 1979
  | ref = harv
}}
* {{cite book|author=Arto Salomaa|title = Formal Languages|publisher = ACM Monograph Series|year= 1973}}
* {{cite book|author = [[Michael Sipser]] | year = 1997 | title = Introduction to the Theory of Computation | publisher = PWS Publishing | isbn = 0-534-94728-X}} Chapter 2: Context-Free Languages, pp.&nbsp;91–122.
* Jean-Michel Autebert, Jean Berstel, Luc Boasson, [http://www-igm.univ-mlv.fr/~berstel/Articles/1997CFLPDA.pdf Context-Free Languages and Push-Down Automata], in: G. Rozenberg, A. Salomaa (eds.), Handbook of Formal Languages, Vol. 1, Springer-Verlag, 1997, 111-174.
{{refend}}
 
{{Formal languages and grammars}}
 
[[Category:Formal languages]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Linguistics]]

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I wish everyone in India opened their eyes like you have done. For some reason many people in Indian Metros (especially the so called crowd) look down on anyone religious, especially from the Hindu Religion. This is even displayed regularly in Bollywood movies in which the villain or clown is the religious Hindu..

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The thing that I missed most from the tour was competitive spirit. Rehabbing is just boring. I want to play. One individual in the relationship is being more selfish than the other. What happens is that with separate accounts it becomes a rivalry from the beginning. I bought this with my money.

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I have raised, sheltered,fed, clothed, and educated my children, I cherish them. Obama, and his ugly wife, with that 'funnylooking" lil' mouth, need to quit "pontificating" to people from "platitudes" on high. He is not the only father who has "raised" his children.

Continue walking across the wooden boardwalk to the other side and back onto the packed gravel trail. At the junction, go right for a 1km each direction side trip to the old historic Langley Speedway. The Deer Trail passes through an open grassy meadow before passing through a set of trees and approaching on the old race track.

They have to feel in control.Also she expressed that the victims of bullying are people with lack of assertiveness, people with overprotective parents or insufficient family support. For these psychologists, it is crucial that the schools and parents intervene in bullying cases to avoid suicides. Sometimes the victims of bullying think that suicide is the only action that will help them stop the bullying.Due to the consequences of bullying, different regulations are being approved to stop this pattern.