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| The concept of '''objectivity''' in science means that qualitative and quantitative descriptions of physical phenomena remain unchanged when the phenomena are observed under a variety of conditions. For example, physical processes (''e.g.'' material properties) are invariant under changes of observers; that is, it is possible to reconcile observations of the process into a single coherent description of it.
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| == Euclidean transformation ==
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| Physical processes can be described by an observer denoted by <math> O </math>. In [[Euclidean space|Euclidean three-dimensional space]] and time, an observer can measure relative positions of points in space and intervals of time.
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| Consider an event in [[Euclidean space]] characterized by the pairs <math> (x_0,t_0) </math> and <math> (x,t) </math> where <math>x</math> is a position vector and <math>t</math> is a scalar representing time. This pair is mapped to another one denoted by the <math>*</math> superscript. This mapping is done with the orthogonal time-dependent second order tensor <math> Q(t) </math> in a way such that the distance between the pairs is kept the same. Therefore one can write:
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| :<math>\ x^*-x_0^*=Q(t)(x-x_0). </math>
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| By introducing a [[Coordinate vector|vector]] <math> C(t) </math> and a real number <math> \alpha </math> denoting the time shift, the relationship between <math> x </math> and <math> x^* </math> can be expressed
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| :<math>\ x^*=c(t)+Q(t)x \quad \text{where} \quad c(t)=x_0^*-Q(t)x_0 \quad \text{and} \quad \alpha=t^*-t=t_0^*-t_0. </math>
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| The one-to-one mapping connection of the pair <math> (x,t) </math> with its corresponding pair <math> (x^*, t^*) </math> is referred to as a Euclidean transformation.
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| === Displacement ===
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| A physical quantity like [[Displacement (vector)|displacement]] should be invariant relative to a change of observer. Consider one event recorded by two observers; for <math> O</math>, point <math> x</math> moves to position <math>y</math> whereas for <math> O^* </math>, the same point <math> x^*</math> moves to <math>y^*</math>. For <math> O</math>, the displacement is <math> u=y-x </math>. On the other hand, for <math> O^*</math>, one can write:
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| :<math>\ \begin{align} u^* &= y^*-x^* \\
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| &=c(t)+Q(t)y-c(t)-Q(t)x \\
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| &=Q(t)(y-x) \\
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| & =Q(t)u. \end{align} </math>
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| Any spatial [[Coordinate vector|vector field]] <math> u </math> that transforms such that:
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| :<math>\ u^*=Q(t)u, </math>
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| is said to be '''objective''', since <math> |u^*|=|u| </math>.
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| === Velocity ===
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| Because <math> Q(t) </math> is a [[rotation matrix]], <math> Q(t)^T Q(t) = I </math> where <math> I </math> is the [[identity matrix]]. Using this relation, the inverse of the Euclidean transformation can be written as:
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| :<math>\ x = Q(t)^T[x^*-c(t)]. </math>
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| The [[velocity]] can be obtained by differentiating the above expression:
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| :<math>\ v(x,t) = \dot{x} = \dot{Q}(t)^T[x^*-c(t)] + Q(t)^T[v^*-\dot{c}(t)]. </math>
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| By reorganizing the terms in the above equation, one can obtain:
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| :<math>\ \begin{align} v^*(x^*,t) & = Q(t)v + \dot{c}(t) - Q(t)\dot{Q}(t)^T[x^*-c(t)]\\
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| & = Q(t)v + \dot{c}(t) + \Omega(t)[x^*-c(t)], \end{align}</math>
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| where
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| :<math>\ \Omega(t) = \dot{Q}(t)Q(t)^T = -\Omega(t)^T = -Q(t)\dot{Q}(t)^T, </math>
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| is a [[Skew-symmetric matrix|skew tensor]] representing the spin of the reference frame of observer <math> O </math> relative to the reference frame of observer <math> O^* </math> (Holzapfel 2000). To simplify the mathematical notation, the arguments of functions will no longer be written.
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| From the above expression, one can conclude that [[velocity]] is '''not objective''' because of the presence of the extra terms <math> \dot{c} </math> and <math> \Omega[x^*-c] </math>. Nevertheless, the [[velocity]] field can be made '''objective''' by constraining the change of observer to:
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| :<math>\ \dot{c} + \Omega(x^*-c) = 0, </math>
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| A time-independent rigid transformation such as:
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| :<math>\ x^* = c_0 + Q_0x \quad \text{where} \quad \dot{c}_0 = 0 \quad \text{and} \quad \dot{Q_0}=0,</math>
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| respects this condition.
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| === Acceleration ===
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| The material time derivative of the spatial [[velocity]] <math>v</math> returns the spatial [[acceleration]] <math>a</math>. By differentiating the transformation law for the spatial [[velocity]], one can obtain:
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| :<math>\ a^* = \dot{v}^* = \dot{Q}v + Qa + \ddot{c} + \dot{\Omega}(x^*-c) + \Omega(v-\dot{c}), </math>
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| which can be rewritten as the following:
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| :<math>\ a^* = Qa + \ddot{c} + (\dot{\Omega}-\Omega^2)(x^*-c) + 2\Omega(v-\dot{c}). </math>
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| Just like the spatial [[velocity]], the [[acceleration]] is '''not an objective''' quantity for a general change of observer (Holzapfel 2000). As for the spatial [[velocity]], the [[acceleration]] can also be made '''objective''' by constraining the change of observer. One possibility would be to use the time-independent rigid transformation introduced above.
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| == Objectivity for higher-order tensor fields ==
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| A [[tensor field]] of order <math> n </math> and denoted <math> u_1 \otimes \dots \otimes u_n </math> is '''objective''' if, during a general change of observer, the transformation is given by:
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| :<math>\ (u_1 \otimes \dots \otimes u_n)^* = Qu_1 \otimes \dots \otimes Qu_n. </math>
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| === Example for a second order tensor ===
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| Introducing a second order [[tensor]] <math> A = u_1 \otimes u_2 </math>, one can find with the above definition of '''objectivity''' that:
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| :<math>\ A^* = (u_1 \otimes u_2)^* = Qu_1 \otimes Qu_2 = Q(u_1 \otimes u_2)Q^T = QAQ^T.</math>
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| === Example for a scalar field ===
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| The general condition of '''objectivity''' for a [[tensor]] of order <math> n </math> can be applied to a [[scalar field]] <math> \Phi </math> for which <math> n=0 </math>. The transformation would give:
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| :<math>\ \Phi ^* = \Phi. </math>
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| Physically, this means that a [[scalar field]] is independent of the observer. Temperature is an example of [[scalar field]] and it is easy to understand that the temperature at a given point in a room and at a given time would have the same value for any observer.
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| == Euclidean transformation of others kinematic quantities ==
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| === Deformation gradient ===
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| The [[deformation gradient]] at point <math> x </math> and at its associated point <math> x^* </math> is a second order [[tensor]] given by:
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| :<math>\ F = \frac{\partial x}{\partial X} \qquad \textrm{and} \qquad F^* = \frac{\partial x^*}{\partial X}, </math>
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| where <math> X </math> represents the material coordinates. Using the [[chain rule]], one can write:
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| :<math>\ F^* = \frac{\partial x^*}{\partial x} \frac{\partial x}{\partial X} = QF. </math>
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| From the above equation, one can conclude that the [[deformation gradient]] <math> F </math> is '''objective''' even though it transforms like a [[Coordinate vector|vector]] and not like a second order [[tensor]]. This is because one index of the [[tensor]] describes the material coordinates <math> X </math> which are independent of the observer (Holzapfel 2000).
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| === Cauchy stress tensor ===
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| The [[Stress (mechanics)|Cauchy traction vector]] <math> t </math> is related to the [[Cauchy stress tensor]] <math> \sigma </math> at a given point <math> x </math> by the outward normal to the surface <math> n </math> such that: <math> t = \sigma n </math>. The Cauchy traction vector for another observer can be simply written as <math> t^*=\sigma ^* n^* </math>, where <math> t </math> and <math> n </math> are both '''objective''' vectors. Knowing that, one can write:
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| :<math>\ \begin{array}{rrcl} & t^* &=& \sigma ^* n^*\\
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| \Rightarrow & Qt & = & \sigma ^* Qn \\
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| \Rightarrow & Q\sigma n &=& \sigma ^* Qn \\
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| \Rightarrow & \sigma ^* &=& Q\sigma Q^T. \end{array}</math>
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| This demonstrates that the [[Stress (physics)|Cauchy stress tensor]] is '''objective'''.
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| === Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensors ===
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| The first [[Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor]] <math> P </math> is defined as:
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| :<math>\ PF^T = J\sigma, </math>
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| where <math> J=\det(F) </math>. It is also interesting to know that since <math> Q </math> is a [[rotation matrix]]:
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| :<math>\ J^* = \det(F^*) = \det(QF) = \det(Q)\det(F) = \det(F) = J. </math>
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| Using identities developed previously, one can write:
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| :<math>\ \begin{array}{rrcl} & P^*(F^*)^T & = & J^*\sigma ^* \\
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| \Rightarrow & P^*(QF)^T & = & J Q \sigma Q^T \\
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| \Rightarrow & P^*F^T Q^T & = & Q J \sigma Q^T \\
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| \Rightarrow & P^*F^T Q^T & = & Q P F^T Q^T \\
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| \Rightarrow & P^* & = & Q P. \end{array}</math>
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| This proves that the first [[Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor]] is '''objective'''. Similarly to the [[deformation gradient]], this second order [[tensor]] transforms like a [[Coordinate vector|vector]].
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| The second [[Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor]] <math> S=F^{-1}P </math> is also '''objective''' and transforms like a [[scalar field]]. This can be easily demonstrated:
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| :<math>\ S^* = (F^*)^{-1}P^* = (QF)^{-1}QP = F^{-1}Q^{-1}QP = F^{-1}P = S. </math>
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| The three stress [[tensors]], <math> \sigma </math>, <math> P </math> and <math> S </math>, studied here were all found to be '''objective'''. Therefore, they are all suitable to describe the material response and develop constitutive laws, since they are independent of the observer.
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| == Objective rates ==
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| It was shown above that even if a displacement field is '''objective''', the velocity field is not. An objective vector <math> u^*=Qu </math> and an objective tensor <math> A^* = QAQ^T </math> usually do not conserve their '''objectivity''' through time differentiation as demonstrated below:
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| :<math>\ \dot{u}^* = \dot{Q}u + Q\dot{u} \quad \text{and} \quad \dot{A}^* = \dot{Q}AQ^T + Q\dot{A}Q^T + QA\dot{Q}^T.</math>
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| '''Objectivity rates''' are modified material derivatives that allows to have an '''objective''' time differentiation. Before presenting some examples of objectivity rates, certain other quantities need to be introduced. First, the spatial velocity gradient <math>l</math> is defined as:
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| :<math>\ l = \dot{F}F^{-1} = d+w,</math>
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| where <math>d</math> is a [[Symmetric matrix|symmetric tensor]] and <math>w</math> is a [[Skew-symmetric matrix|skew tensor]] called the spin tensor. For a given <math>l</math>, <math>d</math> and <math>w</math> are uniquely defined. The Euclidean transformation for the spatial velocity gradient can be written as:
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| :<math>\ \begin{align} l^* & = \dot{F}^*(F^*)^{-1} \\
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| & = (\dot{Q}F+Q\dot{F})(QF)^{-1} \\
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| & = (\dot{Q}F+Q\dot{F})F^{-1}Q^T \\
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| & = \dot{Q}FF^{-1}Q^T + Q\dot{F}F^{-1}Q^{-1} \\
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| & = \dot{Q}Q^T + QlQ^{-1} \\
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| & = \Omega + QlQ^{-1}. \end{align}</math>
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| Substituting <math>l=d+w</math> in the above equation, one can obtain two following relations:
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| :<math>\ \dot{Q} = w^*Q - Qw \quad \text{and} \quad \dot{Q}^T = -Q^Tw^* + wQ^T </math>
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| Substituting the above result in the previously obtained equation for the rate of an '''objective''' vector, one can write:
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| :<math>\ \begin{array}{rrcl} & \dot{u}^* &=& \dot{Q}u + Q\dot{u} \\
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| \Rightarrow & \dot{u}^* &=& (w^*Q - Qw)u + Q\dot{u} \\
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| \Rightarrow & \dot{u}^* &=& w^*u^* - Qwu + Q\dot{u} \\
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| \Rightarrow & (\dot{u}-wu)^* &=& Q(\dot{u}-wu) \\
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| \Rightarrow & \bar{u}^* &=& Q\bar{u}, \end{array}</math>
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| where the co-rotational rate of the '''objective''' vector field <math>u</math> is defined as:
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| :<math>\ \bar{u}=\dot{u}-wu, </math>
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| and represents an '''objective''' quantity. Similarly, using the above equations, one can obtain the co-rotational rate of the objective second-order tensor field <math>A</math>:
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| :<math>\ \begin{array}{rrcl} & (\dot{A}-wA+Aw)^* &=& Q(\dot{A}-wA+Aw)Q^T \\
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| \Rightarrow & \bar{A}^* &=& Q\bar{A}Q^T. \end{array}</math>
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| This co-rotational rate second order tensor is defined as:
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| :<math>\ \bar{A} = \dot{A}-wA+Aw. </math>
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| This objective rate is known as the Jaumann-Zaremba rate and it is often used in plasticity theory. Many different objective rates can be developed. [[Objective stress rates]] are of particular interest in [[continuum mechanics]] because they are required for [[constitutive model]]s, expressed in terms of time derivatives of [[stress (physics)|stress]] and [[finite strain theory|strain]], to be frame-indifferent.
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| == Invariance of material response ==
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| The principal of material invariance basically means that the material properties are independent of the observer. In this section it will be shown how this principle adds constraints to [[constitutive equation|constitutive laws]].
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| === Cauchy-elastic materials ===
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| A Cauchy-elastic material depends only on the current state of [[Deformation (engineering)|deformation]] at a given time (Holzapfel 2000). In other words, the material is independent of the [[Deformation (engineering)|deformation]] path and time.
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| Neglecting the effect of temperature and assuming the body to be homogeneous, a [[constitutive equation]] for the [[Stress (physics)|Cauchy stress tensor]] can be formulated based on the [[deformation gradient]]:
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| :<math>\ \sigma = G(F).</math> | |
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| This [[constitutive equation]] for another arbitrary observer can be written <math> \sigma^* = G(F^*) </math>. Knowing that the [[Stress (physics)|Cauchy stress tensor]] <math> \sigma </math> and the [[deformation gradient]] <math> F </math> are '''objective''' quantities, one can write:
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| :<math>\ \begin{array}{rrcl} & \sigma^* &=& G(F^*) \\
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| \Rightarrow & Q\sigma Q^T &=& G(QF) \\
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| \Rightarrow & QG(F) Q^T &=& G(QF). \end{array}</math>
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| The above is a condition that the [[constitutive equation|constitutive law]] <math> G </math> has to respect to make sure that the response of the material will be independent of the observer. Similar conditions can be derived for [[constitutive equation|constitutive laws]] relating the [[deformation gradient]] to the first or second [[Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor]].
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| === Isotropic Cauchy-elastic materials ===
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| Here, it will be assumed that the [[Stress (physics)|Cauchy stress tensor]] <math> \sigma </math> is a function of the [[Finite strain theory#The Left Cauchy-Green deformation tensor|left Cauchy-Green tensor]] <math> b=FF^T </math>. The [[constitutive equation]] may be written: | |
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| :<math>\ \sigma = h(b). </math> | |
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| In order to find the restriction on <math> h </math> which will ensure the principle of material frame-indifference, one can write:
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| :<math>\ \begin{array}{rrcl} & \sigma^* &=& h(b^*) \\
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| \Rightarrow & Q \sigma Q^T &=& h(F^*(F^*)^T) \\
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| \Rightarrow & Q h(b) Q^T &=& h(QFF^TQ^T) \\
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| \Rightarrow & Q h(b) Q^T &=& h(QbQ^T). \end{array}</math>
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| A [[constitutive equation]] that respects the above condition is said to be [[isotropic]] (Holzapfel 2000). Physically, this characteristic means that the material has no preferential direction. Wood and most fibre-reinforced composites are generally stronger in the direction of their fibres therefore they are not [[isotropic]] materials (they are qualified as [[anisotropic]]).
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| == See also ==
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| * [[Cartesian coordinate system]]
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| * [[Finite strain theory]]
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| * [[Lagrangian and Eulerian coordinates]]
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| * [[Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor]]
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| * [[Stress (physics)]]
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| * [[Cauchy stress tensor]]
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| * [[Principle of material objectivity]]
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| * [[Objective stress rates]]
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| * [[Hypoelastic material]]
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| == References ==
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| *{{cite book
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| | last = Cirak
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| | first = F.
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| | title = Lecture Notes 5R14: Nonlinear Solid Mechanics
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| | year= 2007
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| | publisher = Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge.
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| }}
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| *{{cite book
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| | last = Gurtin
| |
| | first = M.E.
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| | title = An Introduction to Continuum Mechanics
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| | year= 1981
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| | publisher = Academic Press
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| | isbn = 978-0-12-309750-7
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| }}
| |
| | |
| *{{cite book
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| | last = Holzapfel
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| | first = G.A.
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| | title = Nonlinear Solid Mechanics: A Continuum Approach for Engineering
| |
| | year= 2000
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| | publisher = Wiley
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| | isbn = 978-0-471-82319-3
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| }}
| |
| | |
| *{{cite book
| |
| | last = Leigh
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| | first = D.C.
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| | title = Nonlinear Continuum Mechanics
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| | year= 1968
| |
| | publisher = McGraw-Hill
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| | isbn = 978-0-07-037085-2
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| }}
| |
| *{{Cite journal
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| | last = Martinec
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| | first = A.
| |
| | title = Lecture Notes: Continuum Mechanics, Chapter 5: Objectivity
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| | publisher = Department of Geophysics, Charles University, Prague.
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| | url = http://geo.mff.cuni.cz/vyuka/Martinec-ContMech-newPart5-MovingSpatialFrame.pdf
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| | postscript = <!--None-->
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| }}
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| [[Category:Philosophy of science]]
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