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With all [[solar thermal collector]] systems there is a potential risk that the solar collector may reach an  equilibrium or [[stagnation temperature]] higher than the maximum [[safe operating temperature]]. Various measures are taken for '''optical overheating protection'''.
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Stagnation temperatures are encountered under conditions of high radiation while no heat transfer fluid is flowing through the collector, for example during power failures, component failures, servicing, energy storage capacity limitations, or periods when little hot water is extracted from the system.<ref name="Harrison2004" /> More generally, stagnation conditions can be considered to be any situation under which the solar collector cannot adequately dispatch the absorbed solar heat to the heat transfer fluid.  
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Besides any damaging effects to the system, high stagnation temperatures also place constraints on collector materials. These materials must retain their important properties during and after exposure to the high stagnation temperatures. This implies that solar collectors are generally built from high temperature resistant materials. These materials are usually expensive, heavy, and have an overall high environmental impact.<ref name="Köhl2005" />  
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[[Polymeric]] materials offer a significant cost-reduction and environmental improvement potential for solar thermal collectors and may thus benefit a broader utilization of solar energy for various heating purposes. However, the long-term service temperature of plastics is limited. Thus, for potential applications of plastics in solar absorbers an appropriate design including overheating protection is essential.<ref name="Wallner2008" /> Feasible ways would be a reduction in optical gain (for example, using [[thermotropic]] layers, or [[electrochromic]] devices) or an increase in system losses, by dumping of the hot water excess.
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In this article an alternative method to decrease the optical gain is presented. The method is based on the geometry of prisms and the phenomenon of [[Total Internal Reflection]].
 
== Working principle ==
 
[[File:Prismatic Optical Switch.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.4|Working Principle of the Prismatic Optical Switch. When liquid is present in the switch, the switch behaves as if transparent. When there is no liquid present, the switch becomes reflective]]
 
According to [[Snell's law]], light cannot escape from a medium when it strikes the medium boundary at an angle of incidence (θ) that is larger than the [[critical angle]] (θ<sub>c</sub>), an optical phenomenon called Total Internal Reflection. The critical angle can be calculated using;
 
<math>\theta _{c}=Sin^{-1}(\frac{n_{1}}{n_{2}}),\; \frac{n_{1}}{n_{2}}\leq 1</math>
 
For a [[polycarbonate]] medium, with a [[refraction index]] of n=1.59, placed in an atmosphere of air with a refraction index close to 1, Total Internal Reflection occurs when θ > θ<sub>(c,air)</sub>=39°.
 
Consider a polycarbonate prismatic structure with an apex angle α<sub>1,2</sub>=45° placed in an atmosphere of air. A ray of light that strikes the medium boundary at normal incidence is total internal reflected, as θ<sub>in</sub>=45°> θ<sub>(c,air)</sub>=39°. In presence of water, θ<sub>(c,water)</sub>=56.8° and θ<sub>in</sub>=45°< θ<sub>(c,water)</sub>, the incoming light is merely refracted and traverses the polycarbonate medium. As such, water acts as a switching fluid. In theory, water can be replaced by any other liquid, with an index of refraction close to that of the prismatic structure, to act as the switching fluid.
 
The optical switch consists of a self-regulating mechanism. In its ''passive'' state the switch is filled with liquid and light is allowed to pass through the switch and heat the system behind it. As the system heats up, the switching fluid evaporates out of the optical switch and the prismatic structure starts to behave as a reflective surface. No more light passes through the switch, limiting the maximum temperature of the system to the evaporation temperature of the liquid.<ref name="Slaman2009" />
 
== Angular Dependence ==
[[File:Transmittance Prismatic Array.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.4|Transmittance of a prismatic array against day rotation(δ) (δ=0 stands for 12.00h, 15° equals 1 hour). The prisms are aligned such that the angle of incidence (θ) in mid-summer at noon. (A); Vertical alignment of the prismatic array for a mid-summer day (a) for a mid-autumn & mid-spring day (b), and for a mid-winter day (c). B; Horizontal alignment of the prismatic array for a mid-summer day (d), a mid-autumn & mid-spring day (e), and for a mid-winter day (f).]]
 
Resulting from its geometry, the optical switch is sensitive to the angle of the incident beam. Depending on the shape of the prisms, the transmittance of the switch in its reflective state during a typical day shows characteristic angular dependence. This dependence can be used to find specific [[transmission curve]]s for different applications, where the geometry of the prisms serves as the input variable.
 
== Applications ==
 
The main application for which the optical switch was developed is overheating protection for solar thermal collectors.<ref name="Slaman2009" /> The prismatic geometry can be integrated within the cover plate of the collectors to prevent them from overheating, either by self-regulation through evaporation, or by draining the water out of the switch at a specified maximum temperature. Temperature limitation would allow for the use of polymeric materials within solar collectors, dramatically reducing cost-price and increasing market penetration.
 
Another application of the switch is in windows for both housing and office buildings. The amount of sunlight entering the building can be controlled by the switching liquid. Preventing the amount of sunlight entering a building will reduce the temperature inside the building on sunny days.
 
Finally, the switch can be used within roofs of [[greenhouse]]s. The plants in the greenhouse can be protected from damage on sunny days by putting the switch in the reflective state. Currently greenhouses are covered with a [[chalk]] layer to protect the plants during summer from excessive sunlight. Applying the chalk layer is time consuming and bad for the environment. Once the chalk is applied, it also blocks sunlight during less sunny days. The optical switch could potentially resolve this issue using the switching mechanism described above.
 
The temperature inside the greenhouse can be regulated by switching a certain amount of roof sections in the reflective state. Also the switching fluid inside the roof can be circulated to extract heat from the greenhouse. These cooling methods allow that the (roof) windows remain closed and that the climate ([[relative humidity]] and raised [[CO2]] levels) remain optimal and constant.
 
The Switching fluid in the greenhouse roof can be used as a filter for a certain part of the [[solar spectrum]]. Water allows so-called "PAR" light ([[Photosynthetically active radiation]], the light that plants use to grow) to pass, while "NIR" (Near [[Infra Red]]) light is absorbed. The amount of NIR light to absorb can be tuned by solving micro-particles of Copper Sulphate or clay in the switching fluid. In that way  optimum growth conditions can be selected.
 
Some greenhouse products, like flowers, are grown by using artificial light during the night. This artificial light causes so-called [[light pollution]] in the environment of the greenhouse. When a greenhouse roof consists of a well designed optical switch the greenhouse roof becomes reflective during the night, which keeps the artificial light inside the greenhouse. As a side effect there are less number of lights needed since the roof acts as an efficient mirror.
 
== References ==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="Harrison2004">S.J. Harrison, Q. Lin and L.C.S. Mesquita. Integral Stagnation Temperature Control for Solar Collectors, SESCI 2004 Conference
University of Waterloo Waterloo, Ontario, Canada August 21st–25th, 2004</ref>
<ref name="Köhl2005">M. Köhl et al. Durability of Polymeric Glazing Materials for Solar Applications, Solar Energy 79 (2005) 618–623.</ref>
<ref name="Wallner2008">G.M. Wallner, K. Resch and R. Hausner. Property and performance requirements for thermotropic layers to prevent overheating in an all polymeric flat-plate collector, Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells 92 (2008) 614–620</ref>
<ref name="Slaman2009">M. Slaman, R. Griessen. Solar Collector Overheating Protection, Solar Energy 83 (2009) 982–987</ref>
}}
 
== External links ==
* http://www.nat.vu.nl/~slaman/Optical%20switch/SolSwitch.php
 
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Latest revision as of 14:20, 21 November 2014

These tax credits are helping small business hire and grow, supply affordable health insurance to workers, and invest in new machinery and equipment. That's why he and his Government have focused on strengthening small businesses by signing into law 18 tax cuts for small businesses.

If you look for a good accountant to work with, your life can be simplified and your finances can become simpler to keep. Subsequently, you determine that he's never had a customer like you before. The simplest way to uncover a good accountant is to ask you friends, family, coworkers, and other associates for his or her recommendations and referrals. One technique you might find helpful when searching for an accountant who "gets it", is peruse the various accountant websites. If you can't find the name you are searching for in our CPA Directory you then might have to inquire with the state the CPA is licensed to determine if they're in good standing.

We put your convenience first, which is exactly why you'll be able to pay any fees out of your federal refund --- no credit or debit card demanded. Eventually, there's a larger question regarding the political salience of cap-based federal climate legislation.

I'd appreciate anyone's views on my likelihood of success finding a job as an accountant in one of these cities and if I could maintain a reasonable standard of living. Hiring an accountant to manage your business needs is like hiring every other person, you should interview them and check references.

Your accountant will be able to set up a fiscal structure for your own company that you would manage to follow. I will certainly be printing this and taking it along to my next cpa interview. I am an accountant and I hear stories such as this almost every day.

Those vital doctors are depending on the kind of business you might be taking a look at. Hopefully, the accountant has customers similar in size to your organization. Again, that's why understanding what you want to purchase and hiring an Accountant with a history in that company in addition to due diligence experience is significant.

Most states give residents over a particular age a break on their property taxes. The dearth of a state income tax does not always ensure a low total tax burden. While property values have decreased over recent years in many places that has not always been the case for property taxes.

We reveal the advantages and disadvantages of the most used tax-filing plans. It is ethically doubtful for descendants of oppressed individuals to seek reparations for wrongs done to their forebears, to be paid by contemporaries not responsible for long ago sins.

nThe terms can also be used to implement meaning to the taxation of select consumption, for example a tax on luxury goods and the exemption of basic essentials may be described as having progressive effects as it increases a tax burden on high end consumption and reduces a tax burden on low end consumption

Without a PTIN, the preparer isn't permitted to prepare your return -- this is not something you wish to find out at the ending. You do n't need to choose a preparer who figures out the lowest tax simply to discover the return is full of errors.

Governments tend to be under-resourced, resources aren't efficiently targeted on areas of greatest impact, and mid-level management is weak nDeveloping and developed nations face huge challenges in taxing multinationals and international citizens.

Moving forward, President Obama is committed to reducing the deficit even more, splitting economies in a balanced way between spending cuts and raising revenue in the richest Americans. The best results will be attained by entering only the Property ID. Find out about your tax year and when you need certainly to file.

People with just one employer and few investments may save countless dollars by preparing their own taxes, while those with company income or rental properties will locate the expense of hiring an accountant to be value their satisfaction and possible tax savings.

Perspective unemployment tax account information (for instance, statement of account, chargeback details, tax rates, quarterly wage reports, payment history and the tax account profile). The American tax system is a very big machine with a tax code that appears more complicated than rocket science. Our calculations are 100% precise and your taxes will be done right, guaranteed, or we'll pay you any IRS fees.

Many states offer a tax deduction for contributions to a 529 college-savings strategy to any resident, not only the parents. The level of tax charged on your order will depend upon many factors including Identity of the seller, kind of item bought, and destination of the cargo.

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