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|name =Gustav Fechner
|image =Gustav Fechner.jpg
|image_size =250px
|caption=
|birth_name=Gustav Theodor Fechner
|birth_date = {{birth date|1801|04|19}}
|birth_place = [[Żarki Wielkie|Groß Särchen]] (near [[Bad Muskau|Muskau]]), [[Electorate of Saxony|Saxony]], [[Holy Roman Empire]]
|death_date = {{death date and age|1887|11|18|1801|04|19}}
|death_place = [[Leipzig]], [[Kingdom of Saxony|Saxony]]
|residence =
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|nationality = [[Germany|German]]
|ethnicity =
|field = [[Psychology]]
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|author_abbrev_bot =
|author_abbrev_zoo =
|influences =
|influenced = [[Gerardus Heymans]]<br>[[Wilhelm Wundt]]<br>[[Alfred North Whitehead]]<br>[[Charles Hartshorne]]
|prizes =
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|footnotes =
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'''Gustav Theodor Fechner''' (April 19, 1801 – November 18, 1887), was a [[Germany|German]] [[philosopher]], [[physicist]]  and experimental [[psychologist]]. An early pioneer in experimental psychology and founder of [[psychophysics]], he inspired many 20th century scientists and philosophers. He is also credited with demonstrating the non-linear relationship between psychological sensation and the physical intensity of a stimulus via the formula: <math>S = K \ln I</math>, which became known as the [[Weber–Fechner law]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Fancher |first=R. E. |year=1996 |title=Pioneers of Psychology |edition=3rd |location=New York |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=0-393-96994-0 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation
|pmid = 15171801
|last=Sheynin
|first=Oscar
|publication-date=May 2004
|year=2004
|title=Fechner as a statistician.
|volume=57
|issue=Pt 1
|periodical=[[British journal of mathematical and statistical psychology|The British journal of mathematical and statistical psychology]]
|pages=53–72
|doi = 10.1348/000711004849196
}}</ref>
 
== Early life and scientific career ==
 
Fechner was born at [[Żarki Wielkie|Groß Särchen]], near [[Muskau]], in [[Lower Lusatia]], where his father was a [[pastor]]. Despite being raised by his religious father, Fechner became an atheist in later life.<ref>{{cite book|title=Nature from within: Gustav Theodor Fechner and his Psychophysical Worldview|year=2004|publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press|isbn=9780822970774|page=21|author=Michael Heidelberger|accessdate=1 May 2013|chapter=1: Life and Work|quote=The study of medicine also contributed to a loss of religious faith and to becoming atheist.}}</ref> He was educated first at [[Sorau]] (now [[Żary]] in Western [[Poland]]). In 1817 he studied of medicine at the Medizinisch-Chirurgische Akademie in [[Dresden]] and from 1818 at the [[University of Leipzig]], the city in which he spent the rest of his life.<ref>[http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/people/data?id=per68 Fechner, Gustav Theodor at vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de]</ref> In 1834 he was appointed professor of [[physics]]. But in 1839, he contracted an eye disorder while studying the phenomena of [[color]] and [[Visual perception|vision]], and, after much suffering, resigned. Subsequently recovering, he turned to the study of the [[mind]] and its relations with the body, giving public lectures on the subjects dealt with in his books.
 
== Contributions ==
 
Gustav Fechner published chemical and physical papers, and translated chemical works by [[J. B. Biot]] and [[Louis Jacques Thénard]] from the [[French language]]. A different but essential side of his character is seen in his [[poem]]s and [[humor]]ous pieces, such as the ''Vergleichende Anatomie der Engel'' (1825), written under the pseudonym of "Dr. Mises."
 
Fechner's epoch-making work was his ''Elemente der Psychophysik'' (1860). He starts from the [[Monism|monistic]] thought that bodily facts and conscious facts, though not reducible one to the other, are different sides of one reality. His originality lies in trying to discover an exact mathematical relation between them. The most famous outcome of his inquiries is the law known as the [[Weber–Fechner law]] which may be expressed as follows:
 
:"In order that the intensity of a sensation may increase in arithmetical progression, the stimulus must increase in geometrical progression."
 
Though holding good within certain limits only, the law has been found to be immensely useful. Fechner's law implies that sensation is a logarithmic function of physical intensity, which is impossible due to the logarithm's singularity at zero; therefore, [[Stanley Smith Stevens|S. S. Stevens]] proposed the more mathematically plausible power-law relation of sensation to intensity in his famous [[Stevens' power law|1961 paper]] entitled "To Honor Fechner and Repeal His Law."
 
Fechner's general formula for getting at the number of units in any sensation is ''S'' =&nbsp;''c''&nbsp;log&nbsp;''R'', where ''S'' stands for the sensation, ''R'' for the stimulus numerically estimated, and ''c'' for a constant that must be separately determined by experiment in each particular order of sensibility. Fechner's reasoning has been criticized on the grounds that although stimuli are composite, sensations are not. "Every sensation," says [[William James]], "presents itself as an indivisible unit; and it is quite impossible to read any clear meaning into the notion that they are masses of units combined."
 
=== The Fechner color effect ===
 
In 1838, he also studied the still-mysterious perceptual illusion of what is still called the [[Fechner color|Fechner color effect]], whereby colors are seen in a moving pattern of black and white. The English journalist and amateur scientist [[Charles Benham]], in 1894, enabled English-speakers to learn of the effect through the invention of [[Benham's top|the spinning top that bears his name]]. Whether Fechner and Benham ever actually met face to face for any reason is not known.
 
=== The median ===
In 1878 Fechner published a paper in which he developed the notion of the median. He later delved into [[experimental aesthetics]] and thought to determine the shapes and dimensions of aesthetically pleasing objects. He mainly used the sizes of paintings as his data base. In his 1876 ''Vorschule der Aesthetik'' he used the method of extreme ranks for subjective judgements.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://statprob.com/encyclopedia/gustavtheodorfechner.html |title=Gustav Theodor Fechner |author=Michael Heidelberger |publisher=/statprob.com |date= |accessdate=5 January 2014}}</ref>
 
Fechner is generally credited with introducing the [[median]] into the formal analysis of data.<ref name="keynesProb">Keynes, John Maynard; ''A Treatise on Probability'' (1921), Pt II Ch XVII §5 (p 201).</ref>
 
=== Synesthesia ===
In 1871 Fechner reported the first empirical survey of coloured letter photisms among 73 [[synesthesia|synesthetes]].<ref>Fechner, Th. (1871) ''Vorschule der Aesthetik''. Leipzig: Breitkopf und Hartel.</ref><ref>Campen, Cretien van (1996). De verwarring der zintuigen. Artistieke en psychologische experimenten met synesthesie. ''Psychologie & Maatschappij'', vol. 20, nr. 1, pp. 10–26.</ref> His work was followed in the 1880s by that of [[Francis Galton]].<ref name="galton1880b">{{cite journal |author=Galton F |title=Visualized Numerals |journal=Nature |volume=21 |issue= 543|pages=494–5 |year=1880 |month= |pmid= |doi= 10.1038/021494e0|url=}}</ref><ref name="galton1880a">{{cite journal |author=Galton F |title=Visualized Numerals |journal=Nature |volume=21 |issue= 533|pages=252–6 |year=1880 |month= |pmid= |doi= 10.1038/021252a0|url=}}</ref><ref name="galton1883">{{cite book |author=Galton F. |title=Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development |publisher=Macmillan |location= |year=1883 |pages= |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |url=http://galton.org/books/human-faculty/ |accessdate=2008-06-17}}</ref>
 
=== Corpus Callosum Split ===
One of Fechner's speculations about consciousness dealt with brain. During his time, it was known that the brain is bilaterally symmetrical and that there is a deep division between the two halves that are linked by a connecting band of fibers called the corpus callosum. Ergo, Fechner speculated that if the corpus callosum were split, two separate streams of consciousness would result - the mind would become two. Yet, Fechner believed that his theory would never be tested; he was incorrect. During the mid-twentieth century, Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga worked on epileptic patients with sectioned corpus callosum and observed that Fechner's idea was correct.<ref>[Gazzinga, M.S (1970). The bisected brain. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts]</ref>
 
=== Golden Section Hypothesis ===
Fechner constructed ten rectangles with different ratios of width to length and asked numerous observers to choose the "best" and "worst" rectangle shape. He was concerned with the visual appeal of rectangles with different proportions. The rectangles chosen as "best" by the largest number of participants had a ratio of 0.62 (between 3:5 and 5:8). This became known as the "golden section" and referred to the ratio of a rectangle's width to length that is most appealing to the eye. [[Carl Stumpf]] partook in this study as a participant.
 
== Influence ==
 
Fechner, along with [[Wilhelm Wundt]] and [[Hermann von Helmholtz]], is recognized as one of the founders of modern experimental [[psychology]]. His clearest contribution was the demonstration that because the mind was susceptible to measurement and mathematical treatment, psychology had the potential to become a quantified science. Theorists such as [[Immanuel Kant]] had long stated that this was impossible, and that therefore, a science of psychology was also impossible.
 
Though he had a vast influence on [[psychophysics]], the actual disciples of his general philosophy were few. [[Ernst Mach]] was inspired by his work on psychophysics.<ref>Pojman, Paul, "Ernst Mach", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2011 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2011/entries/ernst-mach/></ref> [[William James]] also admired his work: in 1904, he wrote an admiring introduction to the English translation of Fechner's ''Büchlein vom Leben nach dem Tode'' (''Little Book of Life After Death'').
 
Fechner's world concept was highly [[Animism|animistic]]. He felt the thrill of life everywhere, in plants, earth, stars, the total universe. Man stands midway between the souls of plants and the souls of stars, who are angels.<ref>{{Citation
|pmid = 11610088
|last=Marshall
|first=M E
|publication-date=Jan 1969
|year=1969
|title=Gustav Fechner, Dr. Mises, and the comparative anatomy of angels.
|volume=5
|issue=1
|periodical=Journal of the history of the behavioral sciences
|pages=39–58
|doi = 10.1002/1520-6696(196901)5:1<39::AID-JHBS2300050105>3.0.CO;2-C
}}</ref> God, the soul of the universe, must be conceived as having an existence analogous to men. Natural laws are just the modes of the unfolding of God's perfection. In his last work Fechner, aged but full of hope, contrasts this joyous "daylight view" of the world with the dead, dreary "night view" of [[materialism]]. Fechner's work in [[aesthetics]] is also important. He conducted experiments to show that certain abstract forms and proportions are naturally pleasing to our senses, and gave some new illustrations of the working of aesthetic association. [[Charles Hartshorne]] saw him as a predecessor on his and [[Alfred North Whitehead]]'s philosophy and regretted that Fechner's philosophical work had been neglected for so long.<ref>For Hartshorne's appreciation of Fechner see his [http://www.anthonyflood.com/hartshorneaquinas.htm ''Aquinas to Whitehead – Seven Centuries of Metafysics of Religion'']. Hartshorne also comments that William James failed to do justice to the theological aspects of Fechner's work. Hartshorne saw also resemblances with the work of Fechner's contemporary [[Jules Lequier]]. See also: Hartshorne – Reese (ed.) ''Philosophers speak of God''.</ref>
 
Fechner's position in reference to predecessors and contemporaries is not very sharply defined. He was remotely a disciple of [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling|Schelling]], learnt much from [[Benedict de Spinoza]], [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]], [[Johann Friedrich Herbart]], [[Arthur Schopenhauer]], and [[Christian Hermann Weisse]], and decidedly rejected [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Georg Hegel]] and the [[Monad (philosophy)|monad]]ism of [[Rudolf Hermann Lotze]].
 
=== Fechner Day ===
It is claimed that, on the morning of 22 October 1850, Fechner awoke with a sudden new insight into how to study the mind. Moving away from Wundtarian introspection and basing his work on that of Weber, he developed his [[psychophysics|psychophysical]] [[Weber-Fechner Law|Fechner scale]]. Each year, psychophysicists celebrate 22 October as the anniversary of Fechner's new insight as ''Fechner Day''<ref>Kreuger, L. E. (1993) Personal Communication. ref History of Psychology 4th edition David Hothersal 2004 ISBN 9780072849653</ref> Celebrations, organized by the International Society for Psychophysics, were held in Fechner's home city of [[Leipzig]], to mark Fechner Day in 2001.{{citation needed|date=December 2013}}
 
== Works ==
 
* ''Praemissae ad theoriam organismi generalem'' ("Advances in the general theory of organisms") (1823).
* (Dr. Mises) ''Stapelia mixta'' (1824). [http://books.google.com/books?id=uO4PAAAAYAAJ Google (Harvard)]
* ''Resultate der bis jetzt unternommenen Pflanzenanalysen'' ("Results of plant analyses undertaken to date")  (1829). [http://books.google.com/books?id=ONVIf3eOBy0C Google (Stanford)]
* ''Maassbestimmungen über die galvanische Kette'' (1831).
* (Dr. Mises) ''Schutzmittel für die Cholera'' ("Protective equipment for cholera") (1832). [http://books.google.com/books?id=YBkQAAAAYAAJ Google (Harvard)] — [http://books.google.com/books?id=4dlGAAAAMAAJ Google (UWisc)]
* ''Repertorium der Experimentalphysik'' (1832). 3 volumes.
**<small>Volume 1</small>. [http://books.google.com/books?id=J3gIAAAAIAAJ Google (NYPL)] — [http://books.google.com/books?id=HhoAAAAAQAAJ Google (Oxford)]
**<small>Volume 2</small>. [http://books.google.com/books?id=rm8IAAAAIAAJ Google (NYPL)] — [http://books.google.com/books?id=NBoAAAAAQAAJ Google (Oxford)]
**<small>Volume 3</small>. [http://books.google.com/books?id=0YIIAAAAIAAJ Google (NYPL)] — [http://books.google.com/books?id=NRoAAAAAQAAJ Google (Oxford)]
* (ed.) ''Das Hauslexicon. Vollständiges Handbuch praktischer Lebenskenntnisse für alle Stände'' (1834–38). 8 volumes.
* ''Das Büchlein vom Leben nach dem Tode'' (1836). <small>6th ed.</small>, 1906. [http://books.google.com/books?id=vS0RAAAAYAAJ Google (Harvard)] — [http://books.google.com/books?id=4QIPAAAAIAAJ Google (NYPL)]
** {{en icon}} ''On Life After Death'' (1882). [http://books.google.com/books?id=GjcCAAAAQAAJ Google (Oxford)] — [http://www.archive.org/details/onlifeafterdeath00fechuoft IA (UToronto)] <small>2nd ed.</small>, 1906. [http://books.google.com/books?id=dTE3AAAAMAAJ Google (UMich)] <small>3rd ed.</small>, 1914. [http://www.archive.org/details/onlifeafterdeath00fech IA (UIllinois)]
** {{en icon}} ''The Little Book of Life After Death'' (1904). [http://www.archive.org/details/littlebookoflife00fechuoft IA (UToronto)] 1905, [http://books.google.com/books?id=GsVGAAAAIAAJ Google (UCal)] — [http://www.archive.org/details/littlebookoflife00fechrich IA (Ucal)] — [http://www.archive.org/details/thelittlebookof00fechuoft IA (UToronto)]
* (Dr. Mises) ''Gedichte'' (1841). [http://books.google.com/books?id=HnkHAAAAQAAJ Google (Oxford)]
* ''Ueber das höchste Gut'' ("Concerning the Highest Good") (1846). [http://books.google.com/books?id=geZ2zFi9Hu8C Google (Stanford)]
* (Dr. Mises) ''Nanna oder über das Seelenleben der Pflanzen'' (1848). <small>2nd ed.</small>, 1899. <small>3rd ed.</small>, 1903. [http://books.google.com/books?id=SZAZAAAAMAAJ Google (UMich)] <small>4th ed.</small>, 1908. [http://books.google.com/books?id=rC0RAAAAYAAJ Google (Harvard)]
* ''Zend-Avesta oder über die Dinge des Himmels und des Jenseits'' (1851). 3 volumes. <small>3rd ed.</small>, 1906. [http://books.google.com/books?id=-xkRAAAAYAAJ Google (Harvard)]
* ''Ueber die physikalische und philosophische Atomenlehre'' (1855). <small>2nd ed.</small>, 1864. [http://books.google.com/books?id=RwpTQbECAEUC Google (Stanford)]
* ''Professor Schleiden und der Mond'' (1856). [http://books.google.com/books?id=Yus8IQn2i_UC Google (UMich)]
* ''Elemente der Psychophysik'' (1860). 2 volumes. <small>Volume 1</small>. [http://books.google.com/books?id=C1cOAAAAQAAJ Google (ULausanne)] <small>Volume 2</small>. [http://books.google.com/books?id=oX4NAAAAYAAJ Google (NYPL)]
* ''Ueber die Seelenfrage''  ("Concerning the Soul") (1861). [http://books.google.com/books?id=cxAOAAAAYAAJ Google (NYPL)] — [http://books.google.com/books?id=42tHAAAAIAAJ Google (UCal)] — [http://books.google.com/books?id=boAZAAAAMAAJ Google (UMich)] <small>2nd ed.</small>, 1907. [http://books.google.com/books?id=Xi0RAAAAYAAJ Google (Harvard)]
* ''Die drei Motive und Gründe des Glaubens'' ("The three motives and reasons of faith") (1863). [http://books.google.com/books?id=akEOAAAAYAAJ Google (Harvard)] — [http://books.google.com/books?id=ZuwOAAAAIAAJ Google (NYPL)]
* ''Einige Ideen zur Schöpfungs- und Entwickelungsgeschichte der Organismen'' (1873). [http://books.google.com/books?id=Ud44AAAAMAAJ Google (UMich)]
* (Dr. Mises) ''[[Kleine Schriften]]'' (1875). [http://books.google.com/books?id=9GIZAAAAMAAJ Google (UMich)]
* ''Erinnerungen an die letzen Tage der Odlehre und ihres Urhebers'' (1876). [http://books.google.com/books?id=sjsOAAAAYAAJ Google (Harvard)]
* ''Vorschule der Aesthetik'' (1876). 2 Volumes. [http://books.google.com/books?id=vxoRAAAAYAAJ Google (Harvard)]
* ''In Sachen der Psychophysik'' (1877). [http://books.google.com/books?id=V8lNaXjfkOIC Google (Stanford)]
* ''Die Tagesansicht gegenüber der Nachtansicht'' (1879). [http://books.google.com/books?id=AoINAAAAQAAJ Google (Oxford)] <small>2nd ed.</small>, 1904. [http://books.google.com/books?id=55TMyeBCiW8C Google (Stanford)]
* ''Revision der Hauptpuncte der Psychophysik'' (1882). [http://books.google.com/books?id=RhoRAAAAYAAJ Google (Harvard)]
*''Kollektivmasslehre'' (1897). [http://books.google.com/books?id=RjYJAAAAIAAJ Google (NYPL)]
 
== References ==
 
{{reflist}}
 
== Further reading ==
 
* Heidelberger, M. (2001) Gustav Theodor Fechner, ''Statisticians of the Centuries'' (ed. C. C. Heyde and E. Seneta) pp.&nbsp;142–147. New York: [[Springer Verlag]], 2001.
* Michael Heidelberger. ''Nature From Within: Gustav Theodor Fechner and his Psychophysical Worldview'' Trans. Cynthia Klohr. Pittsburgh, PA: [[University of Pittsburgh Press]], 2004. ISBN 0-822-9421-00
* Stephen M Stigler. ''The History of Statistics: The Measurement of Uncertainty before 1900'', Cambridge, MA: [[Harvard University Press]], 1986. pp.&nbsp;242–254.
 
== External links ==
 
* Works of [http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/index.php?id=19&autorid=161&autor_vorname=+Gustav+Theodor&autor_nachname=Fechner&cHash=b31bbae2c6 Gustav Theodor Fechner] at Projekt Gutenberg-DE. (German)
* Excerpt from [http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Fechner/ ''Elements of Psychophysics''] from the Classics in the History of Psychology website.
* Robert H. Wozniak’s [http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Fechner/wozniak.htm Introduction to ''Elemente der Psychophysik''.]
* [http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/people/data?id=per68 Biography, bibliography and digitized sources] in the [[Virtual Laboratory]] of the [[Max Planck Institute for the History of Science]]
* Granville Stanley 1912 [http://archive.org/stream/foundersofmodern00halluoft#page/124/mode/2up 'Founders of modern psychology''] p.&nbsp;125ff archive.org
* Gustav Theodor Fechner 1904 [http://archive.org/details/littlebookoflife00fechuoft ''The Little Book of Life after Death''] Forward by William James
* Gustav Theodor Fechner 1908 [http://archive.org/details/livingword00worcrich ''The Living Word'']
* [http://statprob.com/encyclopedia/gustavtheodorfechner.html Gustav Theodor Fechner] at statprob.com
 
{{Psychology}}
 
{{Authority control|VIAF=17300276}}
 
{{Persondata
| NAME              = Fechner, Gustav
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = German Scientist
| DATE OF BIRTH    = 1801-04-19
| PLACE OF BIRTH    = [[Żarki Wielkie|Groß Särchen]], Germany
| DATE OF DEATH    = 1887-11-18
| PLACE OF DEATH    = [[Leipzig]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Fechner, Gustav}}
[[Category:1801 births]]
[[Category:1887 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Żary County]]
[[Category:German atheists]]
[[Category:German statisticians]]
[[Category:German psychologists]]
[[Category:Experimental psychologists]]
[[Category:People from the Province of Silesia]]
[[Category:University of Leipzig alumni]]
[[Category:University of Leipzig faculty]]
[[Category:People educated at the Kreuzschule]]

Latest revision as of 22:51, 5 January 2015

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