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| {{For|the esoteric circle|Vienna Circle (esoteric)}}
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| The '''Vienna Circle''' (in {{lang-de|der Wiener Kreis}}) was an association of [[philosopher]]s gathered around the [[University of Vienna]] in 1922, chaired by [[Moritz Schlick]], also known as the '''Ernst Mach Society''' (''Verein Ernst Mach'') in honour of [[Ernst Mach]]. Among its members were [[Gustav Bergmann]], [[Rudolf Carnap]], [[Philipp Frank]], [[Hans Hahn (mathematician)|Hans Hahn]], [[Tscha Hung]], [[Victor Kraft]], [[Karl Menger]], [[Richard von Mises]], [[Marcel Natkin]], [[Otto Neurath]], [[Olga Hahn-Neurath]], [[Theodor Radakovic]], [[Rose Rand]] and [[Friedrich Waismann]].
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| [[Herbert Feigl]] and [[Kurt Gödel]] were two eminent students at the University of Vienna at this time. They were allowed to participate in the meetings, but were not members of the Vienna Circle. Members of the Vienna Circle had a common attitude towards philosophy, consisting of an applied [[logical positivism]] drawn from [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]], whose ''[[Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus]]'' formed the basis for the group's philosophy<ref>{{Cite journal | url = http://books.google.com/?id=BG0FTD1oEakC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Vienna+circle+Wittgenstein#v=onepage&q&f=false | title = Wittgenstein and the Vienna Circle: Conversations | isbn = 9780631134695 | author1 = Wittgenstein | first1 = Ludwig | last2 = Schlick | first2 = Moritz | year = 1983}}</ref> (although Wittgenstein himself insisted that logical positivism was a gross misreading of his thinking, and took to reading poetry during meetings of the Vienna Circle {{Citation needed|date=November 2013}}). The Vienna Circle's influence on [[20th century philosophy]] was immense, and much later work, such as that of [[Willard Van Orman Quine]], was in response to the Circle's thought.
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| ==History of the Vienna Circle==
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| The pre-history of the Vienna Circle began with meetings on the [[philosophy of science]] and [[epistemology]] from 1908<ref>Wittgenstein's Vienna, New Edition, Elephant Paperback, 1996.</ref> on, promoted by Philipp Frank, Hans Hahn and Otto Neurath.
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| Hans Hahn, the oldest of the three (1879–1934), was a mathematician. He received his degree in [[mathematics]] in 1902. Afterwards he studied under the direction of [[Ludwig Boltzmann]] in Vienna and [[David Hilbert]], [[Felix Klein]] and [[Hermann Minkowski]] in [[Göttingen]]. In 1905 he received the [[Habilitation]] in mathematics. He taught at [[Innsbruck]] (1905–1906) and [[Vienna]] (from 1909).
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| Otto Neurath (1882–1945) studied [[sociology]], [[economics]] and [[philosophy]] in Vienna and Berlin. From 1907 to 1914 he taught in Vienna at the [[Neuen Wiener Handelsakademie]] (Viennese Commercial Academy). Neurath married Olga, Hahn's sister, in 1911.
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| Philipp Frank, the youngest of the group (1884–1966), studied [[physics]] at Göttingen and Vienna with Ludwig Boltzmann, David Hilbert and [[Felix Klein]]. From 1912, he held the chair of [[theoretical physics]] in the German University in [[Prague]].
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| Their meetings were held in Viennese coffeehouses from 1907 onward. Frank remembered:
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| {{quotation|After 1910 there began in Vienna a movement which regarded Mach's [[positivist]] philosophy of science as having great importance for general intellectual life [...] An attempt was made by a group of young men to retain the most essential points of Mach's positivism, especially his stand against the misuse of [[metaphysics]] in science. [...] To this group belonged the mathematician H. Hahn, the political economist Otto Neurath, and the author of this book [i.e. Frank], at the time an instructor in [[theoretical physics]] in Vienna. [...] We tried to supplement Mach's ideas by those of the French philosophy of science of [[Henri Poincaré]] and [[Pierre Duhem]], and also to connect them with the investigations in [[logic]] of such authors as Couturat, Schröder, Hilbert, etc.|Uebel, Thomas, 2003, p.70.}}
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| Presumably the meetings stopped in 1912, when Frank went to Prague, to hold the chair of theoretical physics left vacant by [[Albert Einstein]]. Hahn left Vienna during [[World War I]] and returned in 1921. The following year Hahn, with the collaboration of Frank, arranged to bring into the group Moritz Schlick, who held the chair of philosophy of the inductive sciences at the [[University of Vienna]]. Schlick had already published his two main works ''Raum und Zeit in die gegenwärtigen Physik'' (''Space and Time in contemporary Physics'') in 1917 and ''Allgemeine Erkenntnislehre'' (''General Theory of Knowledge'') in 1918. A central work for the newly founded discussion group was the ''Logisch-Philosophische Abhandlung'' ([[Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus]]), published by [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] in 1921 (in 1922 in German-English version).
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| Under the direction of Schlick, a new regular series of meetings began. In 1926 Schlick and Hahn arranged to bring in Rudolf Carnap at the University of Vienna. In 1928 the ''Verein Ernst Mach'' (Ernst Mach Society) was founded, with Schlick as chairman. In 1929 the Vienna Circle manifesto ''Wissenschaftliche Weltauffassung. Der Wiener Kreis'' (''The Scientific Conception of the World. The Vienna Circle'' also known as ''Viewing the World Scientifically: The Vienna Circle''<ref>Edmunds, D. and Eidenow, J. ''Wittgenstein's Poker: The Story of a Ten-Minute Argument Between Two Great Philosophers,'' 2001, page 151.</ref> ) was published. The pamphlet is dedicated to Schlick, and its preface was signed by Hahn, Neurath and Carnap. It names [[Albert Einstein]], [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]], and [[Bertrand Russell]] as the "intellectual fathers" of the movement.<ref>Edmunds, D. and Eidenow, J. ''Wittgenstein's Poker: The Story of a Ten-Minute Argument Between Two Great Philosophers,'' 2001, page 151.</ref> In the appendix is a list of the members of the Vienna Circle.
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| The Vienna Circle was dispersed when the [[Nazism|Nazi]] party came to power in [[Germany]]; many of its members emigrated to [[USA]], where they taught in several universities. Schlick remained in [[Austria]], but in 1936 he was killed by a Nazi sympathizer student in the University of Vienna.
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| The [[Kraft Circle]], a successor to the Vienna Circle, arose in 1949 under the leadership of Viktor Kraft. Its philosophical programme was continued long after its demise (1952/3) by [[Paul Feyerabend]].
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| ==Manifesto==
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| It states the scientific world-conception of the Vienna Circle, which is characterized "essentially by two features. First it is [[empiricism|empiricist]] and positivist: there is knowledge only from experience. Second, the scientific world-conception is marked by the application of a certain method, namely [[logic|logical analysis]]."<ref>''The Scientific Conception of the World. The Vienna Circle'' in Sarkar, Sahotra, 1996, p. 331—hereinafter ''VC''</ref>
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| Logical analysis is the method of clarification of philosophical problems; it makes an extensive use of [[symbolic logic]] and distinguishes the Vienna Circle empiricism from earlier versions. The task of philosophy lies in the clarification—through the method of logical analysis—of problems and assertions.
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| Logical analysis shows that there are two different kinds of statements; one kind includes statements reducible to simpler statements about the empirically given; the other kind includes statements which cannot be reduced to statements about [[experience]] and thus they are devoid of meaning. [[Metaphysical]] statements belong to this second kind and therefore they are meaningless. Hence many philosophical problems are rejected as pseudo-problems which arise from logical mistakes, while others are re-interpreted as empirical statements and thus become the subject of scientific inquiries.
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| One source of the logical mistakes that are at the origins of metaphysics is the ambiguity of natural [[language]]. "Ordinary language for instance uses the same [[part of speech]], the substantive, for [[object (philosophy)|thing]]s ('apple') as well as for [[Quality (philosophy)|qualities]] ('hardness'), relations ('friendship'), and processes ('sleep'); therefore it misleads one into a thing-like conception of functional [[concept]]s".<ref>''VC'' p. 329</ref> Another source of mistakes is "the notion that ''thinking'' can either lead to knowledge out of its own resources without using any empirical material, or at least arrive at new contents by an [[inference]] from given states of affair".<ref>''VC'' p. 330</ref> [[synthetic proposition|Synthetic knowledge]] a priori is rejected by the Vienna Circle. Mathematics, which at a first sight seems an example of necessarily valid synthetic knowledge derived from pure [[reason]] alone, has instead a [[Tautology (logic)|tautological]] character, that is its statements are [[analytic proposition|analytical statements]], thus very different from Kantian synthetic statements. The only two kinds of statements accepted by the Vienna Circle are synthetic statements ''[[Empirical evidence|a posteriori]]'' (i.e., scientific statements) and analytic statements ''[[a priori and a posteriori|a priori]]'' (i.e., logical and mathematical statements).
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| However, the persistence of metaphysics is connected not only with logical mistakes but also with "social and economical struggles".<ref name="Vc">''VC'' p. 339</ref> Metaphysics and [[theology]] are allied to traditional social forms, while the group of people who "faces modern times, rejects these views and takes its stand on the ground of empirical sciences".<ref name="Vc" /> Thus the struggle between metaphysics and [[science|scientific world-conception]] is not only a struggle between different kinds of philosophies, but it is also—and perhaps primarily—a struggle between different political, social, and economical attitudes. Of course, as the manifesto itself acknowledged, "not every adherent of the scientific world-conception will be a fighter".<ref>VC p. 339</ref> Many historians of the Vienna Circle see in the latter sentence an implicit reference to a contrast between the so-called 'left wing' of the Vienna Circle, mainly represented by Neurath and Carnap, and Moritz Schlick. The aim of the left wing was to facilitate the penetration of the scientific world-conception in "the forms of personal and public life, in [[education]], upbringing, [[architecture]], and the shaping of economic and social life".<ref>''VC'' p. 339–340</ref> In contrast, Schlick was primarily interested in the theoretical study of science and philosophy. Perhaps the sentence "Some, glad of solitude, will lead a withdrawn existence on the icy slopes of logic" is an ironic reference to Schlick.<ref name="Vc" />
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| The manifesto lists [[Walter Dubislav]], [[Josef Frank (architect)|Josef Frank]], [[Kurt Grelling]], [[Hasso Härlen]], [[Eino Kaila]], [[Heinrich Loewy]], [[F. P. Ramsey]], [[Hans Reichenbach]], [[Kurt Reidemeister]], and [[Edgar Zilsel]] as people "sympathetic to the Vienna Circle" and [[Albert Einstein]], [[Bertrand Russell]], and [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] as its "leading representatives".
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| ==Unified science== | |
| The final goal pursued by the Vienna Circle was [[Unified Science|unified science]], that is the construction of a "constitutive system" in which every legitimate statement is reduced to the concepts of lower level which refer directly to the given [[experience]]. "The endeavour is to link and harmonise the achievements of individual investigators in their various fields of science".<ref>''VC'' p. 328</ref> From this aim follows the search for clarity, neatness, and for a symbolic language that eliminates the problems arising from the ambiguity of natural language. The Vienna Circle published a collection, called ''Einheitswissenschaft'' (''Unified science''), edited by Rudolf Carnap, Philipp Frank, Hans Hahn, Otto Neurath, [[Joergen Joergensen]] (after Hahn's death) and [[Charles W. Morris]] (from 1938), whose aim was to present an unified vision of science. After the publication in [[Europe]] of seven monographs from 1933 to 1939, the collection was dismissed, because of the problems arising from the [[World War II]]. In 1938 a new series of publications started in USA. It was the [[International Encyclopedia of Unified Science]], an ambitious project never completed devoted to unified science. Only the first section ''Foundations of the Unity of Sciences'' was published; it contains two volumes for a total of twenty monographs published from 1938 to 1969. As remembered by Rudolf Carnap and Charles Morris in the ''Preface'' to the 1969 edition of the International Encyclopedia of Unified Science:
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| {{quotation|The ''Encyclopedia'' was in origin the idea of Otto Neurath. It was meant as a manifestation of the unity of science movement [...] Original plans for the Encyclopedia were ambitious. In addition to the two introductory volumes, there was to be a section on the methodology of the sciences, one on the existing state of the unification of sciences, and possibly a section on the application of the sciences. It was planned that the work in its entirety would comprise about twenty-six volumes (260 monographs)|''Foundations of the Unity of Sciences'', vol. 1, The University of Chicago Press, 1969, p. vii.}}
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| [[Thomas Kuhn]]'s well known work, ''[[The Structure of Scientific Revolutions]]'', was published in this Encyclopedia in 1962, as the number two in the second volume.
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| ==Elimination of metaphysics==
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| The attitude of Vienna Circle towards metaphysics is well expressed by Carnap in the article 'Überwindung der Metaphysik durch Logische Analyse der Sprache' in ''Erkenntnis'', vol. 2, 1932 (English translation 'The Elimination of Metaphysics Through Logical Analysis of Language' in Sarkar, Sahotra, ed., ''Logical empiricism at its peak: Schlick, Carnap, and Neurath'', New York : Garland Pub., 1996, pp. 10–31). A language—says Carnap—consists of a [[vocabulary]], i.e., a set of meaningful words, and a [[syntax]], i.e., a set of rules governing the formation of sentences from the words of the vocabulary. Pseudo-statements, i.e., sequences of words that at first sight resemble statements but in reality have no meaning, are formed in two ways: either meaningless words occur in them, or they are formed in an invalid syntactical way. According to Carnap, pseudo-statements of both kinds occur in metaphysics.
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| A word ''W'' has a meaning if two conditions are satisfied. First, the mode of the occurrence of ''W'' in its elementary sentence form (i.e., the simplest sentence form in which ''W'' is capable of occurring) must be fixed. Secondly, if ''W'' occurs in an elementary sentence ''S'', it is necessary to give an answer to the following questions (that are—according to Carnap—equivalent formulation of the same question):
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| * What [[Sentence (linguistics)|sentence]]s is ''S'' deducible from, and what sentences are deducible from ''S''?
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| * Under what conditions is ''S'' supposed to be true, and under what conditions false?
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| * How is ''S'' verified?
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| * What is the meaning of ''S''?
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| (Carnap, "The Elimination of Metaphysics Through Logical Analysis of Language" in Sarkar, Sahotra, cit., pp. 12)
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| An example offered by Carnap concerns the word '[[arthropod]]'. The sentence form "the thing ''x'' is an arthropod" is an elementary sentence form that is derivable from "''x'' is an animal", "''x'' has a segmented body" and "''x'' has jointed legs". Conversely, these sentences are derivable from "the thing ''x'' is an arthropod". Thus the meaning of the word 'arthropod' is determined.
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| According to Carnap, many words of metaphysics do not fulfill these requirements and thus they are meaningless. As an example, Carnap considers the word 'principle'. This word has a definite meaning, if the sentence "''x'' is the principle of ''y''" is supposed to be equivalent to the sentence "''y'' exists by virtue of ''x''" or "''y'' arises out of ''x''". The latter sentence is perfectly clear: ''y'' arises out of ''x'' when ''x'' is invariably followed by ''y'', and the invariable association between ''x'' and ''y'' is empirically verifiable. But—says Carnap—metaphysicians are not satisfied with this interpretation of the meaning of 'principle'. They assert that no empirical relation between ''x'' and ''y'' can completely explain the meaning of "''x'' is the principle of ''y''", because there is something that cannot be grasped by means of the experience, something for which no empirical criterion can be specified. It is the lacking of any empirical criterion—says Carnap—that deprives of meaning the word 'principle' when it occurs in metaphysics. Therefore, metaphysical pseudo-statements such as "water is the principle of the world" or "the spirit is the principle of the world" are void of meaning because a meaningless word occurs in them.
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| However, there are pseudo-statements in which occur only meaningful words; these pseudo-statements are formed in a counter-syntactical way. An example is the word sequence "Caesar is a [[prime number]]"; every word has a definite meaning, but the sequence has no meaning. The problem is that "prime number" is a predicate of numbers, not a predicate of human beings. In the example the nonsense is evident; however, in natural language the rules of grammar do not prohibit the formation of analogous meaningless word sequences that are not so easily detectable. In the grammar of natural languages, every sequence of the kind "''x'' is ''y''", where ''x'' is a noun and ''y'' is a predicate, is acceptable. In fact, in the grammar there is no distinction between predicate which can be affirmed of human beings and predicate which can be affirmed of numbers. So "Caesar is a general" and "Caesar is a prime number" are both well-formed, in contrast for example with "Caesar is and", which is ill-formed. In a logically constructed language—says Carnap—a distinction between the various kinds of predicate is specified, and pseudo-statements as "Caesar is a prime number" are ill-formed. Now, and this is the main point of Carnap's argument, metaphysical statements in which meaningless words do not occur, are indeed meaningless because they are formed in a way which is admissible in natural languages, but not in logically constructed languages. Carnap attempts to indicate the most frequent sources of errors from which metaphysical pseudo-statements can arise. One source of mistakes is the ambiguity of the verb "to be", which is sometimes used as a [[Copula (linguistics)|copula]] ("I am hungry"), and sometimes to designate existence ("I am"). The latter statement incorrectly suggests a predicative form, and thus it suggests that existence is a predicate. Only modern logic, with the introduction of an explicit sign to designate existence (the sign <math>\exists \;</math>), which occurs only in statements such as <math>\exists \;xP(x)</math>, never as a predicate, has shown that existence is not a predicate, and thus has revealed the logical error from which pseudo-statements such as "cogito, ergo sum" has arisen.
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| Another source of mistakes is type confusions, in which a predicate of a kind is used as a predicate of another kind. For example the pseudo-statements "we know the Nothing" is analogous to "we know the rain", but while the latter is well-formed, the former is ill-formed, at least in a logically constructed language, because "Nothing" is incorrectly used as a [[noun]]. In a formal language, "Nothing" only means <math>\lnot \;\exists \;x</math>, such as "there is nothing which is outside"—i.e., <math>\lnot \;\exists \;xO(x)</math>, and thus "Nothing" never occurs as a noun or as a predicate.
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| According to Carnap, although metaphysics has no theoretical content, it does have content: metaphysical pseudo-statements express the attitude of a person towards life, and this is the role of metaphysics. He compares it to an art like lyrical poetry; the metaphysician works with the medium of the theoretical; he confuses art with science, attitude towards life with knowledge, and thus produces an unsatisfactory and inadequate work. "Metaphysicians are musicians without musical ability".<ref>Carnap, 'The Elimination of Metaphysics', in Sarkar, Sahotra, cit.,p. 30</ref>
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| ==Congresses and publications==
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| The Vienna Circle was very active in advertising their new philosophical ideas. Several congresses on [[epistemology]] and philosophy of science were organized, with the help of the [[Berlin Circle]]. There were some preparatory congresses: Prague (1929), [[Königsberg]] (1930), Prague (1934) and then the first congress on scientific philosophy held in [[Paris]] (1935), followed by congresses in [[Copenhagen]] (1936), Paris (1937), [[Cambridge]], United Kingdom (1938), [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge, United States]]. (1939). The Königsberg congress (1930) was very important, for Kurt Gödel announced that he had proven the [[Gödel's completeness theorem|completeness]] of [[first-order logic]] and the [[Gödel's incompleteness theorem|incompleteness]] of formal [[arithmetic]]. Another very interesting congress was the one held in Copenhagen (1936), which was dedicated to [[quantum physics]] and [[causality]].
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| Between 1928 and 1937, the Vienna Circle published ten books in a collection named ''Schriften zur wissenschaftlichen Weltauffassung'' (''Monographs on the Scientific World-Conception''), edited by Schlick and Frank. [[Karl Raimund Popper]]'s book ''Logik der Forschung'' was published in this collection. Seven works were published in another collection, called ''Einheitswissenschaft'' (''Unified Science''). In 1930 Rudolf Carnap and [[Hans Reichenbach]] undertook the editorship of the journal ''Erkenntnis'', which was published between 1930 and 1940 (from 1939 the editors were Otto Neurath, Rudolf Carnap and Charles Morris).
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| The following is the list of works published in the two collections edited by the Vienna Circle.
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| ''Schriften zur wissenschaftlichen Weltauffassung'' (''Monographs on the Scientific World-Conception''), edited by Schlick and Frank:
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| *[[Richard von Mises]], ''Wahrscheinlichkeit, Statistik und Wahrheit'', 1928 (''Probability, Statistics, and Truth'', New York : Macmillan company, 1939)
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| *Rudolf Carnap, ''Abriss der Logistik'', 1929
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| *Moritz Schlick, ''Fragen der Ethik'', 1930 (''Problems of Ethics'', New York : Prentice-Hall, 1939)
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| *Otto Neurath, ''Empirische Soziologie'', 1931
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| *Philipp Frank, ''Das Kausalgesetz und seine Grenzen'', 1932 (''The Law of Causality and its Limits'', Dordrecth ; Boston : Kluwer, 1997)
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| *[[Otto Kant]], ''Zur Biologie der Ethik'', 1932
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| *Rudolf Carnap, ''Logische Syntax der Sprache'', 1934 (''The Logical Syntax of Language'', New York : Humanities, 1937)
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| *Karl Raimund Popper, ''Logik der Forschung'', 1934 (''The Logic of Scientific Discovery'', New York : Basic Books, 1959)
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| *[[Josef Schächeter]], ''Prolegomena zu einer kritischen Grammatik'', 1935 (''Prolegomena to a Critical Grammar'', Dordrecth ; Boston : D. Reidel Pub. Co., 1973)
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| *Victor Kraft, ''Die Grundlagen einer wissenschaftliche Wertlehre'', 1937 (''Foundations for a Scientific Analysis of Value'', Dordrecth ; Boston : D. Reidel Pub. Co., 1981)
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| ''Einheitswissenschaft'' (''Unified Science''), edited by Carnap, Frank, Hahn, Neurath, Joergensen (after Hahn's death), Morris (from 1938):
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| *Hans Hahn, ''Logik, Mathematik und Naturerkennen'', 1933
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| *Otto Neurath, ''Einheitswissenschaft und Psychologie'', 1933
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| *Rudolf Carnap, ''Die Aufgabe der Wissenschaftlogik'', 1934
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| *Philipp Frank, ''Das Ende der mechanistischen Physik'', 1935
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| *Otto Neurath, ''Was bedeutet rationale Wirtschaftsbetrachtung'', 1935
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| *Otto Neurath, [[Egon Brunswik|E. Brunswik]], C. Hull, [[G. Mannoury]], J. Woodger, ''Zur Enzyklopädie der Einheitswissenschaft''. Vorträge, 1938
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| *Richard von Mises, ''Ernst Mach und die empiristische Wissenschaftauffassung'', 1939
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| These works are translated in ''Unified Science: The Vienna Circle Monograph Series Originally Edited by Otto Neurath'', Kluwer, 1987.
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| Monographs, arranged in chronological order, published in the ''International Encyclopedia of Unified Science'':
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| *Otto Neurath, Niels Bohr, [[John Dewey]], [[Bertrand Russell]], Rudolf Carnap, Charles Morris, ''Encyclopedia and unified science'', 1938, vol.1 n.1
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| *Charles Morris, ''Foundations of the theory of signs'', 1938, vol.1 n.2
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| *[[Victor Lenzen]], ''Procedures of empirical sciences'', 1938, vol.1 n.5
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| *Rudolf Carnap, ''Foundations of logic and mathematics'', 1939, vol.1 n.3
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| *[[Leonard Bloomfield]], ''Linguistic aspects of science'', 1939, vol.1 n.4
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| *[[Ernest Nagel]], ''Principles of the theory of probability'', 1939, vol.1 n.6
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| *[[John Dewey]], ''Theory of valuation'', 1939, vol.2 n.4
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| *[[Giorgio de Santillana]] and [[Edgar Zilsel]], ''The development of rationalism and empiricism'', 1941, vol.2 n.8
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| *Otto Neurath, ''Foundations of social sciences'', 1944, vol.2 n.1
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| *[[Joseph H. Woodger]], ''The technique of theory construction'', 1949, vol.2 n.5
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| *Philipp Frank, ''Foundations of physics'', 1946, vol.1 n.7
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| *[[Erwin Finlay-Freundlich]], ''Cosmology'', 1951, vol.1 n.8
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| *Joergen Joergensen, ''The development of logical empiricism'', 1951, vol.2 n.9
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| *[[Egon Brunswik]], ''The conceptual framework of psychology'', 1952, vol.1 n.10
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| *[[Carl Hempel]], ''Fundamentals of concept formation in empirical science'', 1952, vol.2 n.7
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| *[[Felix Mainx]], ''Foundations of biology'', 1955, vol.1 n.9
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| *[[Abraham Edel]], ''Science and the structure of ethics'', 1961, vol.2 n.3
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| *[[Thomas S. Kuhn]], ''The structure of scientific revolutions'', 1962, vol.2 n.2
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| *[[Gerhard Tintner]], ''Methodology of mathematical economics and econometrics'', 1968, vol.2 n.6
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| *Herbert Feigl and Charles Morris, ''Bibliography and index'', 1969, vol.2 n.10
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| ==Quoted works==
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| *''Foundations of the Unity of Sciences'', vol. 1, Chicago : The University of Chicago Press, 1969
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| *Uebel, Thomas, "On the Austrian Roots of Logical Empiricism" in ''Logical Empiricism — Historical and contemporary Perspectives'', ed. Paolo Parrini, Wesley C. Salmon, Merrilee H. Salmon, Pittsburgh : University of Pittsburgh Press, 2003, pp. 76–93
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| *''Wissenschaftliche Weltauffassung. Der Wiener Kreis'', 1929. English translation ''The Scientific Conception of the World. The Vienna Circle'' in Sarkar, Sahotra, ed., ''The Emergence of Logical Empiricism: from 1900 to the Vienna Circle'', New York : Garland Publishing, 1996, pp. 321–340
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| *Rudolf Carnap, "Überwindung der Metaphysik durch Logische Analyse der Sprache" in ''Erkenntnis'', vol. 2, 1932 (English translation "The Elimination of Metaphysics Through Logical Analysis of Language" in Sarkar, Sahotra, ed., ''Logical empiricism at its peak: Schlick, Carnap, and Neurath'', New York : Garland Pub., 1996, pp. 10–31)
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| ==Reception in the United States==
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| The spread of [[logical positivism]] in the United States occurred throughout the 1920s and 1930s. In 1929 and in 1932, Schlick was a Visiting Professor at [[Stanford University|Stanford]], while Feigl, who immigrated to the United States in 1930, became lecturer (1931) and professor (1933) at the [[University of Iowa]]. The definite diffusion of logical positivism in the United States was due to Carl Hempel, Hans Reichenbach, Rudolf Carnap, Philipp Frank, and Herbert Feigl, who emigrated and taught in the United States.<ref>E. Nagel, "Nature and Convention" in: ''The Journal of Philosophy'', 26, 1929, in which Nagel discussed Reichenbach's interpretation of the theory of relativity;</ref>
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| <ref>S. Hook, "Personal Impression of Contemporary German Philosophy" in: ''The Journal of Philosophy'', 27, 1930, in which Hook presented a favorable report on logical positivism;</ref><ref>A. E. Blumberg and H. Feigl, "Logical Positivism: A New Movement in European Philosophy" in: ''The Journal of Philosophy'', 28, 1931.</ref>
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| Another link to the United States is [[Willard Van Orman Quine]], who traveled in 1932 and 1933 as a Sheldon Traveling Fellow to [[Vienna]], [[Prague]], and [[Warsaw]]. Moreover, American [[semiotician]] and philosopher [[Charles W. Morris]] helped many German and Austrian philosophers emigrate to the United States, including Rudolf Carnap, in 1936.
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| ==Reception in the UK==
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| [[Alfred Jules Ayer]] acquainted the British academia with the work of the Vienna Circle. [[Karl Popper]] was also important for the reception and critique of their work, even though he never participated in the meetings of the Vienna Circle.
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| ==See also==
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| * [[Logical positivism]]
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| * [[List of Austrian intellectual traditions]]
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| ==References==
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| ===Notes===
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| <references />
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| ===Bibliography===
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| *Ayer, Alfred Jules. ''Logical Positivism''. Glencoe, Ill: Free Press, 1959.
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| *Barone, Francesco. ''Il neopositivismo logico''. Roma Bari: Laterza, 1986.
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| *Bergmann, Gustav. ''The Metaphysics of Logical Positivism''. New York: Longmans Green, 1954.
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| *Cirera, Ramon. ''Carnap and the Vienna Circle: Empiricism and Logical Syntax''. Atlanta, GA: Rodopi, 1994.
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| *Friedman, Michael, ''Reconsidering Logical Positivism''. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
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| *Gadol, Eugene T. ''Rationality and Science: A Memorial Volume for Moritz Schlick in Celebration of the Centennial of his Birth''. Wien: Springer, 1982.
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| *Geymonat, Ludovico. ''La nuova filosofia della natura in Germania''. Torino, 1934.
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| *Giere, Ronald N. and Richardson, Alan W. ''Origins of Logical Empiricism''. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997.
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| *Kraft, Victor. The Vienna Circle: ''The Origin of Neo-positivism, a Chapter in the History of Recent Philosophy''. New York: Greenwood Press, 1953.
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| *McGuinness, Brian. ''Wittgenstein and the Vienna Circle: Conversations Recorded by Friedrich Waismann''. Trans. by Joachim Schulte and Brian McGuinness. New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 1979.
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| *Parrini, Paolo; Salmon, Wesley C.; Salmon, Merrilee H. (ed.) ''Logical Empiricism — Historical and Contemporary Perspectives'', Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2003.
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| *Reisch, George. ''How the Cold War Transformed Philosophy of Science : To the Icy Slopes of Logic''. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
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| *Salmon, Wesley and Wolters, Gereon (ed.), ''Logic, Language, and the Structure of Scientific Theories: Proceedings of the Carnap-Reichenbach Centennial, University of Konstanz, 21–24 May 1991'', Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1994.
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| *Sarkar, Sahotra. ''The Emergence of Logical Empiricism: From 1900 to the Vienna Circle''. New York: Garland Publishing, 1996.
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| *Sarkar, Sahotra. ''Logical Empiricism at its Peak: Schlick, Carnap, and Neurath''. New York: Garland Pub., 1996.
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| *Sarkar, Sahotra. ''Logical Empiricism and the Special Sciences: Reichenbach, Feigl, and Nagel''. New York: Garland Pub., 1996.
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| *Sarkar, Sahotra. ''Decline and Obsolescence of Logical Empiricism: Carnap vs. Quine and the Critics''. New York: Garland Pub., 1996.
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| *Sarkar, Sahotra. ''The Legacy of the Vienna Circle: Modern Reappraisals''. New York: Garland Pub., 1996.
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| *Spohn, Wolfgang (ed.), ''Erkenntnis Orientated: A Centennial Volume for Rudolf Carnap and Hans Reichenbach'', Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1991.
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| ==External links==
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| * [http://web.archive.org/web/20080102142932/http://www.phil.gu.se/vienna.html copy of "Friends of the Vienna Circle"]
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| * [http://www.murzim.net/LP/LP00.html The Philosophy of Logical Positivism]
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| * [http://www.univie.ac.at/ivc Institute Vienna Circle]
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| * [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/vienna-circle/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
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| * [http://gnadav.googlepages.com/TheScientificConceptionoftheWorldeng.doc The Vienna Circle Manifesto]
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| {{epistemology}}
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| {{philosophy of science}}
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| {{analytic philosophy}}
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| {{positivism}}
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| {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2010}}
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| [[Category:Vienna Circle|*]]
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| [[Category:Logical positivism]]
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| [[Category:Analytic philosophers]]
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| [[Category:Austrian philosophers| ]]
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| [[Category:Science studies]]
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| [[Category:Philosophy of science]]
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| [[Category:Epistemology]]
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| [[Category:Epistemology of science]]
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| {{Link GA|et}}
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