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| {{Statistical mechanics|cTopic=[[Particle statistics|Particle Statistics]]}}
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| In [[quantum mechanics]], the '''spin–statistics theorem''' relates the [[spin (physics)|spin]] of a particle to the [[particle statistics]] it obeys. The spin of a particle is its intrinsic [[angular momentum]] (that is, the contribution to the total angular momentum which is not due to the orbital motion of the particle). All [[particle]]s{{citation needed|date=November 2013}} have either [[integer]] spin or [[half-integer]] spin (in units of the [[reduced Planck constant]] ''ħ'').
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| The theorem states that:
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| * the [[wave function]] of a system of [[identical particles|identical]] integer-spin particles has the same value when the positions of any two particles are swapped. Particles with wave functions symmetric under exchange are called ''[[boson]]s'';
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| * the wave function of a system of identical half-integer spin particles changes sign when two particles are swapped. Particles with wave functions [[additive inverse|antisymmetric]] under exchange are called ''[[fermion]]s''.
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| In other words, the spin–statistics theorem states that integer spin particles are bosons, while half-integer spin particles are fermions.
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| The spin–statistics relation was first formulated in 1939 by [[Markus Fierz]],<ref>M. Fierz "Über die relativistische Theorie kräftefreier Teilchen mit beliebigem Spin" Helvetica Physica Acta 12:3–37, 1939</ref> and was rederived in a more systematic way by [[Wolfgang Pauli]].<ref>W. Pauli "The Connection Between Spin and Statistics", Phys. Rev. 58, 716–722 (1940), [http://web.ihep.su/dbserv/compas/src/pauli40b/eng.pdf pdf]</ref> Fierz and Pauli argued by enumerating all free field theories, requiring that there should be quadratic forms for locally commuting{{clarify|date=June 2012}} observables including a positive definite energy density. A more conceptual argument was provided by [[Julian Schwinger]] in 1950. [[Richard Feynman]] gave a demonstration by demanding unitarity for scattering as an external potential is varied,<ref>R.P. Feynman "Quantum Electrodynamics", Basic Books, 1961</ref> which when translated to field language is a condition on the quadratic operator that couples to the potential.<ref>W. Pauli "On the Connection Between Spin and Statistics" Progress of Theoretical Physics vol 5 no. 4, 1950</ref>
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| == General discussion == | |
| In a given system, two indistinguishable particles, occupying two separate points, have only one state, not two. This means that if we exchange the positions of the particles, we do not get a new state, but rather the same physical state. In fact, one cannot tell which particle is in which position.
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| A physical state is described by a wavefunction, or – more generally – by a vector, which is also called a "state"; if interactions with other particles are ignored, then two different wavefunctions are physically equivalent if their absolute value is equal. So,
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| while the physical state does not change under the exchange of the particles' positions, the wavefunction may get a minus sign.
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| [[Boson]]s are particles whose wavefunction is symmetric under such an exchange, so if we swap the particles the wavefunction does not change. [[Fermion]]s are particles whose wavefunction is antisymmetric, so under such a swap the wavefunction gets a minus sign, meaning that the amplitude for two identical fermions to occupy the same state must be zero. This is the [[Pauli exclusion principle]]: two identical fermions cannot occupy the same state. This rule does not hold for bosons.
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| In quantum field theory, a state or a wavefunction is described by [[field operator]]s operating on some basic state called the [[Vacuum state|''vacuum'']]. In order for the operators to project out the symmetric or antisymmetric component of the creating wavefunction, they must have the appropriate commutation law. The operator
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| :<math>
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| \int \int \psi(x,y) \phi(x)\phi(y)\,dx\,dy
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| \,</math>
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| (with <math>\phi</math> an operator and <math>\psi(x,y)</math> a numerical function)
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| creates a two-particle state with wavefunction <math>\psi(x,y)</math>, and depending on the commutation properties of the fields, either only the antisymmetric parts or the symmetric parts matter.
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| Let us assume that <math>x \ne y</math> and the two operators take place at the same time; more generally, they may have [[spacelike]] separation, as is explained hereafter.
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| If the fields '''commute''', meaning that the following holds
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| :<math>\phi(x)\phi(y)=\phi(y)\phi(x)\,</math>,
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| then only the symmetric part of <math>\psi</math> contributes, so that <math>\psi(x,y) = \psi(y,x)</math> and the field will create bosonic particles.
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| On the other hand if the fields '''anti-commute''', meaning that <math>\phi</math> has the property that
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| :<math>\phi(x)\phi(y)=-\phi(y)\phi(x)\,</math>
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| then only the antisymmetric part of <math>\psi</math> contributes, so that <math>\psi(x,y) = -\psi(y,x)</math>, and the particles will be fermionic.
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| Naively, neither has anything to do with the spin, which determines the rotation properties of the particles, not the exchange properties.
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| ==A suggestive bogus argument==
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| Consider the two-field operator product
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| :<math> R(\pi)\phi(x) \phi(-x) \, </math>
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| where R is the matrix which rotates the spin polarization of the field by 180 degrees when one does a 180 degree rotation around some particular axis. The components of <math>\phi</math> are not shown in this notation, <math>\phi</math> has many components, and the matrix R mixes them up with one another.
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| In a non-relativistic theory, this product can be interpreted as annihilating two particles at positions <math>x \ </math> and <math>-x \ </math> with polarizations which are rotated by <math>\pi</math> relative to each other. Now rotate this configuration by π around the origin. Under this rotation, the two points <math>x \ </math> and <math>-x \ </math> switch places, and the two field polarizations are additionally rotated by a <math>\pi \ </math>. So you get
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| :<math> R(2\pi)\phi(-x) R(\pi)\phi(x) \,</math>
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| which for integer spin is equal to
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| :<math> \phi(-x) R(\pi)\phi(x) \ </math>
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| and for half integer spin is equal to | |
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| :<math> - \phi(-x) R(\pi)\phi(x) \, </math>
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| (proved [[Spin (physics)#Spin and rotations|here]]). Both the operators <math>\pm \phi(-x) R(\pi)\phi(x)</math> still annihilate two particles at <math>x</math> and <math>- x</math>. Hence we claim to have shown that, with respect to particle states: <math>R(\pi)\phi(x) \phi(-x) = \begin{cases}\phi(-x) R(\pi)\phi(x) & \text{ for integral spins}, \\ -\phi(-x) R(\pi)\phi(x) & \text{ for half-integral spins}.\end{cases}</math>
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| So exchanging the order of two appropriately polarized operator insertions into the vacuum can be done by a rotation, at the cost of a sign in the half integer case.
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| This argument by itself does not prove anything like the spin/statistics relation. To see why, consider a nonrelativistic spin 0 field described by a free Schrödinger equation. Such a field can be anticommuting or commuting. To see where it fails, consider that a nonrelativistic spin 0 field has no polarization, so that the product above is simply:
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| :<math> \phi(-x) \phi(x)\,</math>
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| In the nonrelativistic theory, this product annihilates two particles at x and −x, and has zero expectation value in any state. In order to have a nonzero matrix element, this operator product must be between states with two more particles on the right than on the left:
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| :<math> \langle 0| \phi(-x) \phi(x) |\psi\rangle \,</math>
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| Performing the rotation, all that you learn is that rotating the 2-particle state <math>|\psi\rangle</math> gives the same sign as changing the operator order. This is no information at all, so this argument does not prove anything.
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| ==Why the bogus argument fails==
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| To prove spin/statistics, it is necessary to use relativity (though there are a few nice methods<ref name=spin-stat-arthur>{{cite journal|last=Jabs|first=Arthur|title=Connecting Spin and Statistics in Quantum Mechanics|journal=Foundations of Physics|date=5 April 2002|volume=40|series=Foundations of Physics|issue=7|pages=776–792|doi=10.1007/s10701-009-9351-4|url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/x1113t6363462871/about/|accessdate=May 29, 2011|bibcode = 2010FoPh...40..776J |arxiv = 0810.2399 }}</ref><ref name=spin-stat-joshua>{{cite journal|last=Horowitz|first=Joshua|title=From Path Integrals to Fractional Quantum Statistics|date=14 April 2009|url=http://web.mit.edu/joshuah/www/projects/fractional.pdf}}</ref> which do not use field theoretic tools). In relativity, there are no local fields which are pure creation operators or annihilation operators. Every local field both creates particles and annihilates the corresponding antiparticle. This means that in relativity, the product of the free real spin-0 field has a ''nonzero'' vacuum expectation value, because in addition to creating particles and annihilating particles, it also includes a part which creates and then annihilates a particle:
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| :<math> G(x)= \langle 0 | \phi(-x) \phi(x) | 0\rangle \,</math>
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| And now the heuristic argument can be used to see that G(x) is equal to G(−x), which tells you that the fields cannot be anti-commuting.
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| ==Proof==
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| The essential ingredient in proving the spin/statistics relation is relativity, that the physical laws do not change under [[Lorentz transformation]]s. The field operators transform under [[Lorentz transformation]]s according to the spin of the particle that they create, by definition.
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| Additionally, the assumption (known as [[causality (physics)|microcausality]]) that spacelike separated fields either commute or anticommute can be made only for relativistic theories with a time direction. Otherwise, the notion of being spacelike is meaningless. However, the proof involves looking at a Euclidean version of spacetime, in which the time direction is treated as a spatial one, as will be now explained.
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| [[Lorentz transformations]] include 3-dimensional rotations as well as [[Lorentz Boost|boosts]]. A boost transfers to a [[frame of reference]] with a different velocity, and is mathematically like a rotation into time. By [[analytic continuation]] of the correlation functions of a quantum field theory, the time coordinate may become [[imaginary number|imaginary]], and then boosts become rotations. The new "spacetime" has only spatial directions, and is termed ''Euclidean''.
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| A π rotation in the Euclidean x–t plane can be used to rotate vacuum expectation values of the field product of the previous section. The ''time rotation'' turns the argument of the previous section into the spin/statistics theorem.
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| The proof requires the following assumptions:
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| # The theory has a Lorentz invariant Lagrangian.
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| # The vacuum is Lorentz invariant.
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| # The particle is a localized excitation. Microscopically, it is not attached to a string or domain wall.
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| # The particle is propagating, meaning that it has a finite, not infinite, mass.
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| # The particle is a real excitation, meaning that states containing this particle have a positive definite norm.
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| These assumptions are for the most part necessary, as the following examples show:
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| # The [[Schrödinger field|spinless anticommuting field]] shows that spinless fermions are nonrelativistically consistent. Likewise, the theory of a spinor commuting field shows that spinning bosons are too.
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| # This assumption may be weakened.
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| # In 2+1 dimensions, sources for the [[Chern–Simons theory]] can have exotic spins, despite the fact that the three dimensional rotation group has only integer and half-integer spin representations.
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| # An ultralocal field can have either statistics independently of its spin. This is related to Lorentz invariance, since an infinitely massive particle is always nonrelativistic, and the spin decouples from the dynamics. Although colored quarks are attached to a QCD string and have infinite mass, the spin-statistics relation for quarks can be proved in the short distance limit.
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| # [[Faddeev–Popov ghost|Gauge ghosts]] are spinless fermions, but they include states of negative norm.
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| Assumptions 1 and 2 imply that the theory is described by a path integral, and assumption 3 implies that there is a local field which creates the particle.
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| The rotation plane includes time, and a rotation in a plane involving time in the Euclidean theory defines a CPT transformation in the Minkowski theory. If the theory is described by a path integral, a CPT transformation takes states to their conjugates, so that the correlation function
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| ::<math> \langle 0 | R\phi(x) \phi(-x)|0\rangle </math> | |
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| must be positive definite at x=0 by assumption 5, the particle states have positive norm. The assumption of finite mass implies that this correlation function is nonzero for x spacelike. Lorentz invariance now allows the fields to be rotated inside the correlation function in the manner of the argument of the previous section:
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| :: <math> \langle 0 | RR\phi(x) R\phi(-x) |0\rangle = \pm \langle 0| \phi(-x) R\phi(x)|0\rangle </math>
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| Where the sign depends on the spin, as before. The CPT invariance, or Euclidean rotational invariance, of the correlation function guarantees that this is equal to G(x). So
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| :: <math> \langle 0 | ( R\phi(x)\phi(y) - \phi(y)R\phi(x) )|0\rangle = 0 \,</math>
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|
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| for integer spin fields and
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| :: <math> \langle 0 | R\phi(x)\phi(y) + \phi(y)R\phi(x)|0\rangle = 0 \, </math>
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| for half-integer spin fields.
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| Since the operators are spacelike separated, a different order can only create states that differ by a phase. The argument fixes the phase to be −1 or 1 according to the spin. Since it is possible to rotate the space-like separated polarizations independently by local perturbations, the phase should not depend on the polarization in appropriately chosen field coordinates.
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| This argument is due to [[Julian Schwinger]].<ref>The Quantum Theory of Fields I, Schwinger 1950. The only difference between the argument in this paper and the argument presented here is that the operator "R" in Schwinger's paper is a pure time reversal, instead of a CPT operation, but this is the same for CP invariant free field theories which were all that Schwinger considered.</ref>
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| ==Consequences==
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| Spin statistics theorem implies that half-integer spin particles are subject to the [[Pauli exclusion principle]], while integer-spin particles are not. Only one fermion can occupy a given [[quantum state]] at any time, while the number of bosons that can occupy a quantum state is not restricted. The basic building blocks of matter such as [[proton]]s, [[neutron]]s, and [[electron]]s are fermions. Particles such as the [[photon]], which mediate forces between matter particles, are bosons.
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| There are a couple of interesting phenomena arising from the two types of statistics. The [[Bose–Einstein distribution]] which describes bosons leads to [[Bose–Einstein condensate|Bose–Einstein condensation]]. Below a certain temperature, most of the particles in a bosonic system will occupy the ground state (the state of lowest energy). Unusual properties such as [[superfluidity]] can result. The [[Fermi–Dirac distribution]] describing fermions also leads to interesting properties. Since only one fermion can occupy a given quantum state, the lowest single-particle energy level for spin-1/2 fermions contains at most two particles, with the spins of the particles oppositely aligned. Thus, even at [[absolute zero]], the system still has a significant amount of energy. As a result, a fermionic system exerts an outward [[pressure]]. Even at non-zero temperatures, such a pressure can exist. This [[degeneracy pressure]] is responsible for keeping certain massive stars from collapsing due to gravity. See [[white dwarf]], [[neutron star]], and [[black hole]].
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| [[Faddeev–Popov ghost|Ghost fields]] do not obey the spin-statistics relation. See [[Klein transformation]] on how to patch up a loophole in the theorem.
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| ==Relation to representation theory of the Lorentz group==
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| The [[Lorentz group]] has no non-trivial [[unitary representation]]s of finite dimension. Thus it seems impossible to construct a Hilbert space in which all states have finite, non-zero spin and positive, Lorentz-invariant norm. This problem is overcome in different ways depending on particle spin-statistics.
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| For a state of integer spin the negative norm states (known as "unphysical polarization") are set to zero, which makes the use of [[gauge symmetry]] necessary.
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| For a state of half-integer spin the argument can be circumvented by having fermionic statistics.<ref>Peskin, Michael E.; Schroeder, Daniel V. (1995), An Introduction to Quantum Field Theory, Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-50397-2
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| </ref>
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| ==Literature==
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| * Markus Fierz: ''Über die relativistische Theorie kräftefreier Teilchen mit beliebigem Spin''. Helv. Phys. Acta '''12''', 3–17 (1939)
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| * Wolfgang Pauli: ''The connection between spin and statistics''. Phys. Rev. '''58''', 716–722 (1940)
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| * Ray F. Streater and Arthur S. Wightman: ''PCT, Spin & Statistics, and All That''. 5th edition: Princeton University Press, Princeton (2000)
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| * Ian Duck and Ennackel Chandy George Sudarshan: ''Pauli and the Spin-Statistics Theorem''. World Scientific, Singapore (1997)
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| * Arthur S Wightman: ''Pauli and the Spin-Statistics Theorem'' (book review). Am. J. Phys. '''67''' (8), 742–746 (1999)
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| * Arthur Jabs: ''Connecting spin and statistics in quantum mechanics''. http://arXiv.org/abs/0810.2399 (Found. Phys. '''40''', 776–792, 793–794 (2010))
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| ==Notes==
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| <references/> | |
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| ==See also==
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| *[[Parastatistics]]
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| *[[Anyonic statistics]]
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| *[[Braid statistics]]
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| ==References==
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| *Paul O'Hara, [http://xxx.lanl.gov/abs/quant-ph/0310016 Rotational Invariance and the Spin-Statistics Theorem], Foun. Phys. 33, 1349–1368(2003).
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| *Ian Duck and E. C. G. Sudarshan, [http://www.webcitation.org/5dXJSK1ZR Toward an understanding of the spin-statistics theorem], Am. J. Phys. 66 (4), 284–303 April 1998. Archived from the [http://wildcard.ph.utexas.edu/~sudarshan/pub/1998_005.pdf original] on 2009-01-02.
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| ==External links==
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| * A nice nearly-proof at [http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/spin_stat.html John Baez's home page]
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| * [http://vimeo.com/62228139 Animation of the Dirac belt trick with a double belt, showing that belts behave as spin 1/2 particles]
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| * [http://vimeo.com/62143283 Animation of a Dirac belt trick variant showing that spin 1/2 particles are fermions]
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| {{DEFAULTSORT:Spin-statistics theorem}}
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| [[Category:Quantum mechanics]]
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| [[Category:Quantum field theory]]
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| [[Category:Particle statistics]]
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| [[Category:Statistical mechanics theorems]]
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| [[Category:Articles containing proofs]]
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| [[Category:Theorems in quantum physics]]
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