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| [[File:Chevy Volt EPA Fuel Economy Official Label.png|thumb|[[Monroney label]] showing the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]]'s fuel economy equivalent ratings for the 2011 [[Chevrolet Volt]]. The rating for [[all-electric mode]] (left) is expressed in miles per gallon gasoline equivalent.]]
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| '''Miles per gallon gasoline equivalent ''' ('''MPGe''' or '''MPG<sub>ge</sub>''') is a measure of the average distance traveled per unit of energy consumed. MPGe is used by the [[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) to compare energy consumption of [[alternative fuel vehicle]]s, [[plug-in electric vehicle]]s and other advanced technology vehicles with the [[fuel economy in automobiles|fuel economy]] of conventional [[internal combustion]] vehicles expressed as miles per [[United States customary units|US]] [[gallon]].<ref name=DecodingMPG>{{cite web|url=http://www.edmunds.com/fuel-economy/decoding-electric-car-mpg.html|title=Decoding Electric Car MPG: With Kilowatt-Hours, Small Is Beautiful|publisher=[[Edmunds.com]]|author=Paul Seredynski|date=2010-12-21|accessdate=2011-02-17}}</ref><ref name=EPAfueleconomy/>
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| The MPGe metric was introduced in November 2010 by EPA in the [[Monroney label]] of the [[Nissan Leaf]] [[electric car]] and the [[Chevrolet Volt]] [[plug-in hybrid]]. The ratings are based on EPA's formula, in which 33.7 [[kilowatt hours]] of electricity is equivalent to one gallon of gasoline, and the energy consumption of each vehicle during [[Fuel economy in automobiles#EPA testing procedure: 2008 and beyond|EPA's five standard drive cycle tests]] simulating varying driving conditions.<ref name=NYTEPA>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/23/business/23leaf.html?_r=1&hpw|title=Nissan Says Its Electric Leaf Gets Equivalent of 99 M.P.G.|work=[[The New York Times]]|author=[[Nick Bunkley]]|date=2010-11-22|accessdate=2011-02-17}}</ref><ref name=USAT1124>{{cite news|url=http://content.usatoday.com/communities/driveon/post/2010/11/volt-is-rated-93-mpg-on-electricity-alone-37-mpg-on-gas-generator/1|title=Volt is rated 93 mpg on electricity alone, 37 mpg on gas generator|author=Fred Meier|work=[[USA Today]]|date=2010-11-24|accessdate=2011-02-17}}</ref> All new cars and light-duty trucks sold in the U.S. are required to have this label showing the EPA's estimate of fuel economy of the vehicle.<ref name=EPAfueleconomy/>
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| In a joint ruling issued in May 2011 the [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] (NHTSA) and EPA established the new requirements for a [[fuel economy and environment label]] that is mandatory for all new passenger cars and trucks starting with [[model year]] 2013. This ruling uses miles per gallon gasoline equivalent for all fuel and advanced technology vehicles available in the U.S. market including [[plug-in hybrid]]s, [[electric vehicle]]s, [[flexible-fuel vehicle]]s, [[Fuel cell vehicle|hydrogen fuel cell vehicle]], [[natural gas vehicle]]s, [[diesel engine|diesel-powered]] vehicles, and [[Gasoline engine|gasoline-powered]] vehicles.<ref name=EPA2013/><ref name=GCC2013/> In addition to being displayed on new vehicles, fuel economy ratings are used by the [[U.S. Department of Energy]] (DOE) to publish the annual Fuel Economy Guide; the [[U.S. Department of Transportation]] (DOT) to administer the [[Corporate Average Fuel Economy]] (CAFE) program; and the [[Internal Revenue Service]] (IRS) to collect [[gas guzzler tax]]es.<ref name=EPAfueleconomy>{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/fueleconomy/|title=Fuel Economy Label|publisher=[[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]]|date=2011-02-14 (last updated)|accessdate=2011-02-17}}</ref> | |
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| Fuel economy estimates for window stickers and CAFE standard compliance are different. The EPA MPGe rating shown in the Monroney label is based on the consumption of the on-board energy content stored in the fuel tank or in the vehicle's battery, or any other energy source, and only represents the [[tank-to-wheel]] energy consumption. CAFE estimates are based on a [[well-to-wheel]] basis and in the case of liquid fuels and [[electric drive vehicle]]s also account for the energy consumed upstream to produce the fuel or electricity and deliver it to the vehicle. Fuel economy for CAFE purposes include an incentive adjustment for alternative fuel vehicles and plug-in electric vehicles which results in higher MPGe than those estimated for window stickers.<ref name=AEI2009>{{cite news|url=http://www.sae.org/mags/aei/6559/|title=Many factors figure in fuel-economy calculation for electric vehicles|author=Paul Weissler|work=Automotive Engineering International Online ([[SAE International]] Magazine)|date=2009-07-06|accessdate=2011-02-23}}</ref><ref name=DOE2000/>
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| ==Background==
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| === 1988: Alternative Motor Fuels Act ===
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| The Alternative Motor Fuels Act (AMFA) enacted in 1988 provides [[Corporate Average Fuel Economy]] (CAFE) incentives for the manufacture of vehicles that use [[ethanol fuel|ethanol]], [[methanol fuel|methanol]], or [[Compressed natural gas|natural gas fuels]], either powered exclusively on these alternative fuels or in conjunction with gasoline or diesel fuel, such [[flexible-fuel vehicle]]s. In order to provide incentives for the widespread use of these fuels and to promote the production of alternative fuel vehicles, AMFA allows manufacturers producing [[alternative fuel vehicle]]s to gain CAFE credits by manufacturing these vehicles, which allows them to raise their overall fleet fuel economy levels to comply with the CAFE standards until the established cap level.<ref name=NHTS1>{{cite web|url=http://www.nhtsa.gov/Laws+&+Regulations/CAFE+-+Fuel+Economy/Report+to+Congress+on+Effects+of+the+Alternative+Motor+Fuels+Act+CAFE+Incentives+Policy|title=Report to Congress on Effects of the Alternative Motor Fuels Act CAFE Incentives Policy|publisher=[[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]]|accessdate=2011-02-22}}</ref><ref name=NHTS2>{{cite web|url=http://www.nhtsa.gov/cars/rules/rulings/cafe/alternativefuels/background.htm|title=The Corporate Average Fuel Economy Program (CAFE) - Background: AMFA CAFE Credits|publisher=[[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]]|accessdate=2011-02-22}}</ref>
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| Beginning in 1993, manufacturers of qualified alternative fuel vehicles can benefit for their CAFE estimation, by computing the weighted average of the fuel economy of the produced alternative fuel vehicles by dividing the alcohol fuel economy by a factor of 0.15. As an example, a dedicated alternative fuel vehicle that would achieve 15 mpg fuel economy while operating on alcohol would have a CAFE calculated as follows:<ref name=NHTS2/>
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| FE = (1/0.15)(15) = 100 miles per gallon
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| For alternative dual-fuel vehicles, an assumption is made that the vehicles would operate 50% of the time on the alternative fuel and 50% of the time on conventional fuel, resulting in a fuel economy that is based on a harmonic average of alternative fuel and conventional fuel. For example, for an alternative dual-fuel model that achieves 15 miles per gallon operating on an alcohol fuel and 25 mpg on the conventional fuel, the resulting CAFE would be:<ref name=NHTS2/>
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| FE = 1 / [(0.5/25) + (0.5/100)] = 40 miles per gallon
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| Calculation of fuel economy for natural gas vehicles is similar. For the purposes of this calculation, the fuel economy is equal to the weighted average of the fuel economy while operating on natural gas and while operating on either gasoline or diesel fuel. AMFA specifies the energy equivalency of 100 cubic feet of natural gas to be equal to 0.823 gallons of gasoline, with the gallon equivalency of natural gas to be considered to have a fuel content, similar to that for alcohol fuels, equal to 0.15 gallons of fuel. For example, under this conversion and gallon equivalency, a dedicated natural gas vehicle that achieves 25 miles per 100 cubic feet of natural gas would have a CAFE value as follows:<ref name=NHTS2/>
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| FE = (25/100) x (100/0.823)(1/0.15) = 203 miles per gallon
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| The [[Energy Policy Act of 1992]] expanded the definition of alternative fuel to include [[liquefied petroleum gas]], [[hydrogen vehicle|hydrogen]], liquid fuels derived from coal and biological materials, [[electric vehicle|electricity]] and any other fuel that the Secretary of Transportation determines to be substantially non-petroleum based and has environmental and energy security benefits. Beginning in 1993, manufacturers of these other alternative fuel automobiles that meet the qualifying requirements can also benefit for special treatment in the calculation of their CAFE.<ref name=NHTS2/>
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| ===1994: Gasoline gallon equivalent===
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| In 1994 the U.S. [[National Institute of Standards and Technology]] (NIST) introduced [[gasoline gallon equivalent]] (GGE) as a metric for fuel economy for [[natural gas vehicle]]s. NIST defined a gasoline gallon equivalent (GGE) as 5.660 pounds of natural gas, and gasoline liter equivalent (GLE) as 0.678 kilograms of natural gas.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ts.nist.gov/WeightsAndMeasures/upload/Handbook-44-Appendix-D-Definitions.pdf|title=Handbook 44 Appendix D -Definitions|publisher=[[National Institute of Standards and Technology]]|year=2007|accessdate=2009-01-02}}</ref>
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| ===2000: Petroleum-equivalent fuel economy===
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| {|class="wikitable" align="right"
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| |colspan="4" align=center style="background-color: #ABCDEF;" |Energy efficiency for selected [[electric car]]s<br>leased in [[California]] between 1996–2003
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| |-align="center"
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| | style="background: #ABCDEF;" |Vehicle|| style="background: #ABCDEF;"|Model<br>year|| style="background: #ABCDEF;" |Type of<br>battery|| style="background: #ABCDEF;" |Energy use<br>([[watt-hour|Wh]]/mi)
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| |-align="center"
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| |align=left|[[GM EV1]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://avt.inl.gov/pdf/fsev/eva/genmot.pdf|title=Test Reports for Vehicles by Manufacturer and Model: General Motors EV1 |publisher=[[Idaho National Laboratory]], US DoE|author=Electric Transportation Applications|year=1996|accessdate=2011-02-21}}</ref>|| 1997|| [[Lead acid]]||164
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| |-align="center"
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| |align=left|[[GM EV1]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://avt.inl.gov/pdf/fsev/eva/ev1_eva.pdf|title=Test Reports for Vehicles by Manufacturer and Model: 1999 General Motors EV1 w/NiMH |publisher=[[Idaho National Laboratory]], US DoE|author=Electric Transportatio Applications|year=1999|accessdate=2011-02-21}}</ref>|| 1999 || [[NiMH]]|| 179
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| |-align="center"
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| |align=left|[[Toyota RAV4 EV]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://avt.inl.gov/pdf/fsev/eva/toyrav96.pdf|title=Test Reports for Vehicles by Manufacturer and Model: Toyota RAV4 EV|publisher=[[Idaho National Laboratory]], US DoE|author=Electric Transportation Applications|year=1996|accessdate=2011-02-21}} ''Energy use averaged 2.5 miles per AC kWh (0.4 AC kWh per mile)''</ref> ||1996 ||[[Lead acid]] ||235
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| |-align="center"
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| |align=left|[[Toyota RAV4 EV]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://avt.inl.gov/pdf/fsev/other/rav_reliability_report.pdf|title=Field Operations Program Toyota RAV4 (NiMH) - Accelerated Reliability Testing - Final Report|publisher=[[Idaho National Laboratory]], US DoE|author=Electric Transportation Applications|date=March 2000|accessdate=2011-02-21}} ''Energy use averaged 2.5 miles per AC kWh (0.4 AC kWh per mile)''</ref> ||2000 ||[[NiMH]] ||400
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| |-align="center"
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| |align=left| [[Ford Ranger EV]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://avt.inl.gov/pdf/fsev/eva/ford_eva.pdf|title=Test Reports for Vehicles by Manufacturer and Model: 1998 Ford Ranger EV|publisher=[[Idaho National Laboratory]], US DoE|author=Electric Transportation Applications|year=1997|accessdate=2011-02-21}}</ref> ||1998 || [[Lead acid]]||337
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| |-align="center"
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| |align=left| [[Chevrolet S-10 EV]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://avt.inl.gov/pdf/fsev/eva/chvs10.pdf|title=Test Reports for Vehicles by Manufacturer and Model: 1997 Chevrolet S-10 Electric|publisher=[[Idaho National Laboratory]], US DoE|author=Electric Transportation Applications|year=1997|accessdate=2011-02-21}}</ref> || 1997 ||[[Lead acid]] ||292
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| |}
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| During the late 1990s and early 2000s several [[electric car]]s were produced in limited quantities as a result of the [[California Air Resources Board]] (CARB) mandate for more fuel-efficient [[zero-emissions vehicle]]s. Popular models available in [[California]] included the [[General Motors EV1]] and the [[Toyota RAV4 EV]].<ref name=TwoBillion>{{Cite book | last = Sperling, Daniel and Deborah Gordon |title = Two billion cars: driving toward sustainability |year =2009| pages=22–26|publisher =[[Oxford University Press]], New York| isbn = 978-0-19-537664-7}}</ref><ref name=Boschert06>{{Cite book | last = [[Sherry Boschert]] | title = Plug-in Hybrids: The Cars that will Recharge America | year = 2006 | pages=15–28| publisher = New Society Publishers, Gabriola Island, Canada| isbn = 978-0-86571-571-4}}</ref> The US DoE and EPA rating for on board energy efficiency for these electric vehicles was expressed as [[kilowatt-hour]]/mile ([[KWh]]/mi), the most commonly known metric in science and engineering for measuring energy consumption, and used as the billing unit for energy delivered to consumers by [[electric utilities]].<ref name=EVN2009>{{cite web|url=http://electric-vehicles-cars-bikes.blogspot.com/2009/08/why-are-volt-and-leaf-evs-measured-in.html#|title=Why are the VOLT and LEAF EVs measured in Miles Per Gallon|publisher=Electric Vehicle News|date=2009-08-15|accessdate=2011-02-21}}</ref>
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| In order to address the [[Corporate Average Fuel Economy]] (CAFE) regulations mandated by the [[US Congress]] in 1975, the [[U.S. Department of Energy]] established in July 2000 a methodology for calculating the petroleum-equivalent fuel economy of [[electric vehicle]]s on a [[well-to-wheel]] basis. The methodology considers the upstream efficiency of the processes involved in the two fuel cycles, including efficiency factors for petroleum refining and distribution, as well as the national average efficiency for electricity generation and transmission.<ref name=DOE2000/>
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| The formula also includes a fuel efficiency incentive factor of 1/0.15 to benefit electric vehicles. This reward factor is intended provide an incentive for vehicle manufactures to produce and sell electric vehicles, as a higher equivalent fuel economy for EVs improves the carmaker overall fleet fuel economy levels in complying with the CAFE standards, and Congress anticipated that such an incentive would help accelerate the commercialization of electric vehicles. The incentive factor chosen by DoE for EVs is the same 1/0.15 factor already applied in the regulatory treatment of other types of [[alternative fuel vehicle]]s.<ref name=DOE2000/> When all factors are considered in DoE's formula, the energy efficiency or equivalent fuel economy of electric vehicles increases from 33,705 Wh/gallon (plug-to-wheel) to 82,049 Wh/gallon (well-to-wheel).<ref name=EVN2009/>
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| ===2007: X Prize===
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| In April 2007, as part of Draft Competition Guidelines released at the New York Auto Show, MPGe was announced as the main merit metric for the [[Progressive Insurance Automotive X Prize]], a competition developed by the [[X Prize Foundation]] for super-efficient vehicles that can achieve at least 100 MPGe.<ref>{{cite web|title=Press Release: Automotive X Prize Announces Draft Guidelines for Competition to Inspire Super-Efficient Vehicles|url=http://www.progressiveautoxprize.org/press-release/automotive-x-prize-announces-draft-guidelines-for-competition-to-inspire-super-ef|publisher=[[X Prize Foundation]]|accessdate=2010-12-01}}</ref> In February 2009, ''[[Consumer Reports]]'' announced that, as part of a partnership with the X Prize Foundation, they planned to report MPGe as one of several measures that will help consumers understand and compare vehicle efficiency for [[alternative fuel vehicle]]s.<ref>{{cite web|title=Press Release: Consumer Reports to Adopt MPGe Measure for Fuel Economy|url=http://www.progressiveautoxprize.org/news-events/press-release/consumer-reports-to-partner-with-x-prize-foundation-on-automotive-safety-t|publisher=[[X Prize Foundation]]|accessdate=2010-12-07}}</ref>
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| ===2010–2011: Miles per gallon equivalent===
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| {{Multiple image | direction = vertical | align = right| image1 = Mini E Monroney lable 2008.jpg| width1 = 220| caption1=Old [[Monroney label]] for [[electric car]]s showing in prominent larger font the [[fuel economy in automobiles|fuel economy]] rating in [[kWh|KW-hr]]/100 miles for the 2009 [[Mini E]].| image2 = Nissan Leaf EPA fuel economy label.jpg| width2 = 220| caption2=New [[Monroney label]] for [[electric car]]s showing in prominent larger font the [[fuel economy in automobiles|fuel economy]] rating in miles per gallon gasoline equivalent for the 2011 [[Nissan Leaf]]. The rating in [[kWh|KW-hr]]/100 miles is shown below MPG-e in smaller font.}}
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| As required by the 2007 [[Energy Independence and Security Act]] (EISA), with the introduction of [[advanced-technology vehicle]]s in the U.S. new information should be incorporated in the [[Monroney label]] of new cars and light-duty trucks sold in the country, such as ratings on [[fuel economy in automobiles|fuel economy]], [[greenhouse gas emissions]], and other [[air pollutant]]s. The [[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]] and the [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] (NHTSA) have conducted a series of studies to determine the best way to redesign this label to provide consumers with simple energy and environmental comparisons across all vehicles types, including [[battery electric vehicle]]s (BEV), [[plug-in hybrid electric vehicle]]s (PHEV), and conventional [[internal combustion engine]] vehicles powered by gasoline and diesel, in order to help consumers choose more efficient and environmentally friendly vehicles. These changes are proposed to be introduced in new vehicles beginning with model year 2012.<ref name=EPAfueleconomy/><ref name=EPAstudy10>{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/fueleconomy/label/420r10909.pdf|title=Environmental Protection Agency Fuel Economy Label - Final Report|author=Office of Transportation and Air Quality, EPA, and [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]], Us DoT|publisher=[[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]]|date=September 2010|accessdate=2011-02-20}}</ref>
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| As part of the research and redesign process, EPA conducted [[focus group]]s where participants were presented with several options to express the consumption of electricity for [[plug-in electric vehicle]]s. The research showed that participants did not understand the concept of a [[kilowatt hour]] as a measure of electric energy use despite the use of this unit in their monthly electric bills. Instead, participants favored a miles per gallon equivalent, MPGe, as the metric to compare with the familiar miles per gallon used for gasoline vehicles. The research also concluded that the kW-hrs per 100 miles metric was more confusing to focus group participants compared to a miles per kW-hr. Based on these results, EPA decided to use the following fuel economy and fuel consumption metrics on the redesigned labels: MPG (city and highway, and combined); MPGe (city and highway, and combined); Gallons per 100 miles; kW-hrs per 100 miles.<ref name=EPAstudy10/>
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| The proposed design and final content for two options of the new sticker label that will be introduced in 2013 [[model year]] cars and trucks were consulted for 60 days with the public in 2010, and both include miles per gallon equivalent and kW-hrs per 100 miles as the fuel economy metrics for plug-in cars, but in one option MPGe and annual electricity cost are the two most prominent metrics.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/fueleconomy/label/420f10048.pdf|title=EPA and NHTSA Propose Changes to the Motor Vehicle Fuel Economy Label|publisher=[[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]]|date=August 2010|accessdate=2011-02-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://wheels.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/08/30/e-p-a-develops-grading-system-for-new-car-stickers/?scp=1&sq=EPA%20new%20window%20sticker%20letter%20grading&st=cse|title=E.P.A. Develops Grading System for New Car Stickers|author=Jim Motavalli|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=201-08-30|accessdate=2011-02-20}}</ref> In November 2010, EPA introduced MPGe as comparison metric on its new sticker for fuel economy for the [[Nissan Leaf]] and the [[Chevrolet Volt]].<ref name=NYTEPA/><ref name=USAT1124/>
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| [[File:Hydrogen 56mpge 500px.jpg|thumb|left|Typical label for [[Fuel cell vehicle|hydrogen fuel cell vehicle]]s expressed in MPGe, mandatory starting with 2013 [[model year]].]]
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| In May 2011, the [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] (NHTSA) and EPA issued a joint final rule establishing new requirements for a [[fuel economy and environment label]] that is mandatory for all new passenger cars and trucks starting with [[model year]] 2013. The ruling includes new labels for [[alternative fuel]] and [[alternative propulsion]] vehicles available in the US market, such as [[plug-in hybrid]]s, [[electric vehicle]]s, [[flexible-fuel vehicle]]s, [[Fuel cell vehicle|hydrogen fuel cell vehicle]], and [[natural gas vehicle]]s.<ref name=EPA2013>{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/carlabel/420f11017.pdf|title=Fact Sheet: New Fuel Economy and Environment Labels for a New Generation of Vehicles|author=EPA|publisher=[[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]]|date=May 2011|accessdate=2011-05-25}}''EPA-420-F-11-017''</ref><ref name=GCC2013>{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2011/05/felabel-20110525.html|title=EPA, DOT unveil the next generation of fuel economy labels|publisher=[[Green Car Congress]]|date=2011-05-25|accessdate=2011-05-25}}</ref> The common fuel economy metric adopted to allow the comparison of alternative fuel and advanced technology vehicles with conventional [[internal combustion engine]] vehicles is [[miles per gallon of gasoline equivalent]] (MPGe). A gallon of gasoline equivalent means the number of kilowatt-hours of electricity, cubic feet of [[compressed natural gas]] (CNG), or kilograms of [[hydrogen]] that is equal to the energy in a gallon of gasoline.<ref name=EPA2013/>
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| The new labels also show for the first time an estimate of how much fuel or electricity it takes to drive {{Convert|100|mi}}, introducing to U.S. consumers with fuel consumption per distance traveled, the metric commonly used in many other countries. EPA explained that the objective is to avoid the traditional miles per gallon metric that can be potentially misleading when consumers compare fuel economy improvements, and known as the "MPG illusion.".<ref name=EPA2013/>
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| ==Description==
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| The miles per gallon gasoline equivalent is based on the energy content of gasoline. The energy obtainable from burning one US gallon is {{convert|115000|btu|kWh|abbr=on|lk=on}}. Thus one mile per gallon gasoline equivalent is equal to 115,000 BTU per mile.<ref>[http://bioenergy.ornl.gov/papers/misc/energy_conv.html Bioenergy Conversion Factors<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
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| For alternative fuels, energy required to manufacture the fuel may also be considered. For electrical power, the energy of any fuels used to generate the electricity and the transmission efficiency must be considered.
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| To convert the mile per gallon rating into other units of distance per unit energy used, the mile per gallon value can be multiplied by one of the following factors to obtain other units:
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| :{|
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| |1 MPGe|| = 8.55 miles/ million BTU
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| | ||≈ 0.0292 miles/[[kilowatt-hour|kW·h]]
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| | ||≈ {{convert|0.0292|mi|km|abbr=on|disp=output only}}/kW·h
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| | ||≈ 0.013 km/MJ
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| |}
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| ==Conversion to MPGe==
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| {{refimprove section|date=February 2011}}
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| MPGe is determined by converting the vehicle consumption per unit distance, as determined through computer modeling or completion of an actual driving cycle, from its native units into a gasoline energy equivalent. Examples of native units include W·h for electric vehicles, kg-H2 for hydrogen vehicles, gallons for [[biodiesel]] or [[liquefied natural gas]] vehicles, [[cubic foot|cubic feet]] for [[compressed natural gas]] vehicles, and [[Pound (mass)|pounds]] for [[propane]] or [[Liquefied petroleum gas]] vehicles. Special cases for specific alternative fuels are discussed below, but a general formula for MPGe is:
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| <math> MPGe = \frac{total~miles~driven}{\left [ \frac{total~energy~of~all~fuels~consumed}{energy~of~one~gallon~of~gasoline} \right ]} = \frac{(total\ miles\ driven) \times (energy\ of\ one\ gallon\ of\ gasoline)} {total~energy~of~all~fuels~consumed} </math>
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| For EPA, this considers the tank-to-wheel for liquids and wall-to-wheel energy consumption for electricity, i.e. it measures the energy for which the owner usually pays. For EVs the energy cost includes the conversions from AC to charge the battery.<ref name=Argonne>{{cite web|url=http://www.transportation.anl.gov/pdfs/HV/457.pdf|title=TEST PROCEDURES AND BENCHMARKING Blended-Type and EV-Capable Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles|author=Michael Duoba ,R. Carlson, J. Wu |publisher=[[Argonne National Laboratory]]|accessdate=2012-11-22}}</ref> The EPA MPGe ratings displayed in window stickers do not account for the energy consumption upstream, which includes the energy or fuel required to generate the electricity or to extract and produce the liquid fuel; the energy losses due to power transmission; or the energy consumed for the transportation of the fuel from the well to the station.<ref name=DOE2000/><ref name=MIT>{{cite web|url=http://mit.edu/evt/summary_mpgge.pdf|title=Fuel Economy Numbers for Electric Vehicles|author=MIT Electric Vehicle Team|publisher=[[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]|date=March 2008|accessdate=2011-02-24}}</ref>
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| Basic values for the energy content of various fuels are given by the defaults used in the Department of Energy GREET (Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy used in Transportation) model,<ref>[http://www.transportation.anl.gov/modeling_simulation/GREET/ GREET model retrieved 2011 01 20]</ref> as follows:
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| Note: 1 KWH is equivalent to 3,412 BTU
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| ! Fuel!! Unit !! Btu/Unit !! KWH/Unit
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| | gasoline || gallon || 116,090 || 34.02
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| | diesel || gallon || 129,488 || 37.95
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| |-
| |
| | biodiesel || gallon || 119,550 || 35.04
| |
| |-
| |
| | ethanol || gallon || 76,330 || 22.37
| |
| |-
| |
| | E85 || gallon || 82,000 || 24.03
| |
| |-
| |
| | CNG || 100 SCF || 98,300 || 28.81
| |
| |-
| |
| | H2-Gas || 100 SCF || 28,900 || 8.47
| |
| |-
| |
| | H2-Liq || gallon || 30,500 || 8.94
| |
| |-
| |
| | LPG || gallon || 84,950 || 24.9
| |
| |-
| |
| | methanol || gallon || 57,250 || 16.78
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| The energy content of a particular fuel can vary somewhat given its specific chemistry and production method. For example, in the new efficiency ratings that have been developed by the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) for [[battery electric vehicle]]s (BEVs) and [[plug-in hybrid electric vehicle]]s (PHEVs) – see below – the energy content of a gallon of gasoline is assumed to be 114,984 BTUs.{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}}
| |
| | |
| ===Electric and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles===
| |
| [[File:Smart ED Monroney sticker WAS 2011 1126.jpg|thumb|[[Monroney label]] showing the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]]'s fuel economy equivalent ratings for the 2011 [[Smart ED]] [[electric car]].]]
| |
| Between 2008 and 2010 several major automakers began commercializing [[battery electric vehicle]]s (BEVs), which are powered exclusively on electricity, and [[plug-in hybrid electric vehicle]]s (PHEVs), which use electricity together with a liquid fuel stored in an on-board fuel tank, usually gasoline, but it might be also powered by [[diesel engine|diesel]], [[ethanol fuel|ethanol]], or [[flex-fuel]] engines.
| |
| | |
| For battery electric vehicles, the [[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]]s formula to calculate the battery-to wheel MPGe is based on energy standards established by the [[U.S. Department of Energy]] in 2000:<ref name=DecodingMPG/><ref name=AEI2009/><ref name=DOE2000/>
| |
| | |
| : <math> MPGe = \frac { E_G} {E_M*E_E} = \frac{ 33,705 } {E_M} </math>
| |
| | |
| where
| |
| : <math> MPGe </math> is expressed as miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (as shown in the [[Monroney label]])
| |
| | |
| :<math> E_G = </math> energy content per gallon of gasoline = 115,000 [[BTU]]s/gallon, as set by U.S. DoE and reported by the Alternative Fuel Data Center.<ref name=DOE2000/>
| |
| | |
| :<math> E_M = </math> wall-to-wheel electrical energy consumed per mile ([[Watt-hour|Wh]]/mi) as measured through [[Fuel economy in automobiles#EPA testing procedure: 2008 and beyond|EPA's five standard drive cycle tests]] for electric cars and SAE test procedures<ref name=AEI2009/><ref name=Argonne/>
| |
| | |
| :<math> E_E = </math> energy per KWatt-hour of electricity (BTU/Wh) = 3.412<ref name=DOE2000/>
| |
| | |
| The formula employed by the EPA for calculating their rated MPGe does not account for any fuel or energy consumed upstream such as the generation and transmission of electrical power, or [[well-to-wheel]] life cycle, as EPA's comparison with [[internal combustion]] vehicles is made on a [[tank-to-wheel]] versus battery-to wheel basis.
| |
| | |
| The [[California Air Resources Board]] uses a different [[dynamometer]] testing than EPA, and considers reformulated gasoline sold in that state. For CARB estimates the formula becomes:<ref name=AEI2009/>
| |
| | |
| : <math> MPGe = \frac { E_G} {E_M*E_E} = \frac{ 32,600 } {E_M}</math>
| |
| | |
| The new [[SAE International|SAE]] J1711 standard for measuring the exhaust emissions and fuel economy of [[hybrid electric vehicle]]s and [[plug-in hybrid]]s was approved in July 2010. The recommended procedures for PHEVs were revised at [[Argonne National Laboratory]], and EPA's new regulation to define PHEV fuel economy reporting protocol is expected to be based on SAE J1711.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.evworld.com/news.cfm?newsid=23611|title=SAE Approves Method for Rating Plug-In Hybrid MPG and Emissions|publisher=EV World|date=2010-07-01|accessdate=2011-02-26}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://standards.sae.org/j1711_201006|title=Recommended Practice for Measuring the Exhaust Emissions and Fuel Economy of Hybrid-Electric Vehicles, Including Plug-in Hybrid Vehicles|publisher=[[SAE International]]|date=2010-06-08|accessdate=2011-02-26}}</ref> In November 2010 EPA decided to rate electric mode and gasoline only mode separately, and these are the two figures prominently displayed in the window sticker of the 2011 [[Chevrolet Volt]]. In electric mode the Volt's rating is estimated with the same formula as an electric car.<ref name=USAT1124/><ref name=AEI2009/> The overall or composite fuel economy rating combining electricity and gasoline powered are displayed in the Monroney label in a much smaller type, and as part of the comparison of the Volt's fuel economy among all vehicles and within [[compact car]]s.<ref name=NYT1124/> EPA has considered several methodologies for rating the overall fuel economy of PHEVs, but as of February 2011 EPA has not announced the final methodology that will be applied for the purposes of estimating the new manufacture's 2012-2016 [[Corporate Average Fuel Economy]] (CAFE) credits for plug-in hybrids.<ref name=AEI2009/><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/15/business/energy-environment/15auto.html?_r=1&scp=1&sq=Chevrolet%20Volt%20EPA%20rating&st=cse|title=Plug-In Cars Pose Riddle for E.P.A.|author=Nick Bunkley and Bill Vlasic|publisher=[[The New York Times]]|date=2010-10-14|accessdate=2011-02-24}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ====Examples====
| |
| In November 2010 the EPA began including "MPGe" in its new sticker for fuel economy and environmental comparisons. The EPA rated the [[Nissan Leaf]] [[electric car]] with a combined [[fuel economy in automobiles|fuel economy]] of 99 MPGe,<ref name=NYTEPA/> and rated the Chevrolet Volt [[plug-in hybrid]] with a combined fuel economy of 93 MPGe in [[all-electric mode]], 37 MPG when operating with gasoline only, and an overall fuel economy rating of 60 mpg-US (3.9 L/100 km) combining power from electricity and gasoline.<ref name=USAT1124/><ref name=NYT1124>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/25/business/25volt.html?scp=3&sq=Chevrolet%20Volt%20EPA%20rating&st=cse|title=3 Numbers to Rate Volt’s Fuel Economy|author=Nick Bunkley|publisher=[[The New York Times]]|date=2010-11-24|accessdate=2011-02-24}}</ref><ref name=GCCEPAVolt>{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2010/11/volt-20101124.html#more|title=Volt receives EPA ratings and label: 93 mpg-e all-electric, 37 mpg gas-only, 60 mpg-e combined|publisher=[[Green Car Congress]]|date=2010-11-24|accessdate=2010-11-24}}</ref> For both vehicles EPA calculated the MPGe rating under its five-cycle tests using the formula displayed earlier with a conversion factor of 33.7 kW-hr of electricity being the energy equivalent of a gallon of gasoline.<ref name=USAT1124/>
| |
| | |
| =====All-electric cars=====
| |
| The following table compares EPA's [[fuel economy in automobiles|fuel economy]] expressed in miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (MPGe) and out-of-pocket fuel costs for 14 [[series production]] [[all-electric car]]s for [[model year]]s 2011-14 rated by the EPA by April 2013, versus EPA rated most fuel efficient [[plug-in hybrid]], the [[Chevrolet Volt]], and the most efficient [[hybrid electric vehicle|gasoline-electric hybrid car]], the [[Toyota Prius (XW30)|Toyota Prius third generation]].<ref name=EPAMost/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/best-worst.shtml|title=2012 Most and Least Efficient Vehicles|publisher=Fueleconomy.gov|author=[[U. S. Environmental Protection Agency]] and [[U.S. Department of Energy]]|date=2012-11-30|accessdate=2012-12-02}} ''Click on the tab "Cars (excluding EVs)"''</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/extremeMPG.jsp|title=Most Efficient EPA-Certified Vehicles|publisher=Fueleconomy.gov|author=[[U. S. Environmental Protection Agency]] and [[U.S. Department of Energy]]|date=2012-11-30|accessdate=2012-12-02}}</ref> The table also shows, when available the fuel efficiency expressed as KW-hrs/100 mile, the metric used by EPA to rate electric cars before November 2010.<ref name=EVN2009/>
| |
| | |
| {| class=" wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
| |
| ! colspan="10" style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"| Comparison of fuel efficiency and economics for all-electric cars rated by the EPA for the U.S. market<br>against EPA rated most fuel efficient plug-in hybrid and hybrid electric vehicle in the U.S. for model years 2011-14<br><small>(Fuel economy and operating costs as displayed in the [[Monroney label]]</small><br><small>and the [[U.S. Department of Energy]] and [[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]]'s fueleconomy.gov website)</small>
| |
| |-
| |
| ! style="background:#cfc;"| Vehicle || style="background:#cfc;"|Model year|| style="background:#cfc;"| Type of<br>[[powertrain]]||style="background:#cfc;"|Operating<br>mode||style="background:#cfc;"| EPA rated<br>Combined <br>fuel economy ||style="background:#cfc;"|EPA rated<br> City <br>fuel economy||style="background:#cfc;"|EPA rated<br> Highway<br>fuel economy||style="background:#cfc;"|Cost to drive<br>25 miles ||style="background:#cfc;"|Annual<br>fuel cost||style="background:#cfc;"|Notes
| |
| |- style="text-align:center;"
| |
| | align=left|[[Scion iQ EV]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/Find.do?action=sbs&id=33307|title=2013 Scion iQ EV|publisher=Fueleconomy.gov|author=[[U. S. Environmental Protection Agency]] and [[U.S. Department of Energy]]|date=2012-11-30 (last updated) |accessdate=2012-12-02}}</ref>|| 2013||Electric car||[[All-electric]]||121 mpg-e<br>(28 kW-hrs/100 mi)||138 mpg-e<br>(24 kW-hrs/100 mi) ||105 mpg-e<br>(32 kW-hrs/100 mi)||$0.84 ||$500 || align=left|See (1)<br><small>The 2013 iQ EV is the most fuel</small><br><small>efficient EPA-certified vehicle of<br>all fuel types considered in all years.</small><ref name=EPAMost/>
| |
| |- style="text-align:center;"
| |
| | align=left|[[Chevrolet Spark EV]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://insideevs.com/2014-chevy-spark-ev-gets-epa-range-rating-of-82-miles-119-mpge-combined/|title=2014 Chevy Spark EV Gets EPA Range Rating of 82 Miles; 119 MPGe Combined |author= Eric Loveday|publisher=Inside EVs|date=2013-04-24|accessdate=2013-04-24}}</ref>|| 2014 ||Electric car||All-electric||119 mpg-e<br>(28 kW-hrs/100 mi)||128 mpg-e ||109 mpg-e||n.a. ||$500 || align=left| See (1)
| |
| |- style="text-align:center;"
| |
| | align=left|[[Honda Fit EV]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/Find.do?action=sbs&id=33265|title=2013 Honda Fit EV|publisher=Fueleconomy.gov|author=[[U. S. Environmental Protection Agency]] and [[U.S. Department of Energy]]|date=2012-09-17 (last updated) |accessdate=2012-09-17}}</ref>|| 2013 ||Electric car||All-electric||118 mpg-e<br>(29 kW-hrs/100 mi)||132 mpg-e<br>(26 kW-hrs/100 mi) ||105 mpg-e<br>(32 kW-hrs/100 mi)||$0.87 ||$500 || align=left| See (1)
| |
| |- style="text-align:center;"
| |
| | align=left|[[Fiat 500e]]<ref name=EPA500e>{{cite web|url=http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/Find.do?action=sbs&id=33396|title=2013 Fiat 500e|publisher=Fueleconomy.gov|author=[[U. S. Environmental Protection Agency]] and [[U.S. Department of Energy]]|date=2013-02-08 (last updated) |accessdate=2013-02-10}}</ref>|| 2013 ||Electric car||All-electric||116 mpg-e<br>(29 kW-hrs/100 mi)||122 mpg-e ||108 mpg-e||$0.87 ||$500 || align=left| See (1)
| |
| |- style="text-align:center;"
| |
| | align=left|[[Nissan Leaf]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/Find.do?action=sbs&id=33558&id=32154&id=30979|title=2013 Nissan Leaf|publisher=Fueleconomy.gov|author=[[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]] and [[U.S. Department of Energy]]|date=2013-05-16 (last updated) |accessdate=2013-05-16}}</ref>|| 2013||Electric car ||All-electric ||115 mpg-e<br>(29 kW-hrs/100 mi)||129 mpg-e || 102 mpg-e || $0.87|| $500|| align=left| See (1)
| |
| |- style="text-align:center;"
| |
| | align=left|[[Mitsubishi i-MiEV|Mitsubishi i]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/evsbs.shtml|title=2011–12 Electric Vehicles- 2012 Mitsubishi i-MiEV|publisher=Fueleconomy.gov|author=[[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]] and [[U.S. Department of Energy]]|date= 2012-06-27 (last updated)|accessdate=2012-06-27}}</ref> || 2012-13||Electric car ||All-electric||112 mpg-e<br>(30 kW-hrs/100 mi)||126 mpg-e<br>(27 kW-hrs/100 mi) || 99 mpg-e<br>(34 kW-hrs/100 mi)||$0.90|| $550|| align=left| See (1)
| |
| |- style="text-align:center;"
| |
| | align=left|[[Smart electric drive]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/Find.do?action=sbs&id=33306|title=2013 smart fortwo electric drive coupe|publisher=Fueleconomy.gov|author=[[U. S. Environmental Protection Agency]] and [[U.S. Department of Energy]]|date=2012-11-30 (last updated) |accessdate=2012-12-02}}</ref>|| 2013||Electric car||All-electric||107 mpg-e<br>(32 kW-hrs/100 mi)||122 mpg-e<br>(28 kW-hrs/100 mi) ||93 mpg-e<br>(36 kW-hrs/100 mi)||$0.96||$600 || align=left|See (1)<br><small>Ratings correspond to both</small><br><small>convertible and coupe models.</small>
| |
| |- style="text-align:center;"
| |
| | align=left|[[Ford Focus Electric]]<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/Find.do?action=sbs&id=32278|title=2012 Ford Focus BEV|publisher=Fueleconomy.gov|author=[[U. S. Environmental Protection Agency]] and [[U.S. Department of Energy]]|date= 2012-06-27 (last updated)|accessdate= 2012-06-27}}</ref> || 2012-13 ||Electric car ||All-electric ||105 mpg-e<br>(32 kW-hrs/100 mi)||110 mpg-e<br>(31 kW-hrs/100 mi) || 99 mpg-e<br>(34 kW-hrs/100 mi) || $0.96|| $600|| align=left| See (1)
| |
| |- style="text-align:center;"
| |
| | align=left|[[BMW ActiveE]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/Find.do?action=sbs&id=32276|title=2011 BMW Acive E|publisher=Fueleconomy.gov|author=[[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]] and [[U.S. Department of Energy]]|date=2012-11-30 (last updated) |accessdate=2012-12-02}}</ref>|| 2011||Electric car ||All-electric ||102 mpg-e<br>(33 kW-hrs/100 mi)||107 mpg-e || 96 mpg-e||$0.99|| $600|| align=left| See (1)
| |
| |- style="text-align:center;"
| |
| | align=left|[[Nissan Leaf]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/Find.do?action=sbs&id=32154|title=2012 Nissan Leaf|publisher=Fueleconomy.gov|author=[[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]] and [[U.S. Department of Energy]]|date=2012-11-30 (last updated) |accessdate=2012-12-02}}</ref>|| 2011-12||Electric car ||All-electric ||99 mpg-e<br>(34 kW-hrs/100 mi)||106 mpg-e<br>(32 kW-hrs/100 mi) || 92 mpg-e<br>(37 kW-hrs/100 mi) || $1.02|| $600|| align=left| See (1)
| |
| |- style="text-align:center;"
| |
| | align=left|[[Tesla Model S]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/Find.do?action=sbs&id=33367&id=33368|title=2013 Tesla Model S (60 kW-hr battery pack)|publisher=Fueleconomy.gov|author=[[U. S. Environmental Protection Agency]] and [[U.S. Department of Energy]]|date= 2012-12-05 (last updated) |accessdate= 2012-12-07}}</ref> || 2013||Electric car ||All-electric ||95 mpg-e<br>(35 kW-hrs/100 mi)||94 mpg-e|| 97 mpg-e || $1.05 ||$650|| align=left| See (1)<br><small>Model with 60[[kWh]] battery pack</small>
| |
| |- style="text-align:center;"
| |
| | align=left|[[Tesla Model S]]<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/Find.do?action=sbs&id=32557 |title=2012 Tesla Model S|publisher=Fueleconomy.gov|author=[[U. S. Environmental Protection Agency]] and [[U.S. Department of Energy]]|date= 2012-06-27 (last updated) |accessdate= 2012-06-27 }}</ref> || 2012 ||Electric car ||All-electric ||89 mpg-e<br>(38 kW-hrs/100 mi)||88 mpg-e<br>(38 kW-hrs/100 mi) || 90 mpg-e<br>(37 kW-hrs/100 mi) || $1.14 ||$700|| align=left| See (1)<br><small>Model with 85[[kWh]] battery pack</small>
| |
| |- style="text-align:center;"
| |
| | align=left|[[Toyota RAV4 EV#Second generation|Toyota RAV4 EV]]<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/Find.do?action=sbs&id=33308|title=2012 Toyota RAV4 EV|publisher=Fueleconomy.gov|author=[[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]] and [[U.S. Department of Energy]]|date=2012-11-30 (last updated)|accessdate= 2012-12-02}}</ref> || 2012||Electric [[SUV]]||All-electric ||76 mpg-e<br>(44 kW-hrs/100 mi)||78 mpg-e<br>(43 kW-hrs/100 mi)|| 74 mpg-e<br>(46 kW-hrs/100 mi) ||$1.32||$850||align=left| See (1)
| |
| |- style="text-align:center;"
| |
| | align=left|[[Coda (electric car)|Coda]]<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/Find.do?action=sbs&id=32277 |title= 2012 CODA Automotive CODA |publisher=Fueleconomy.gov|author=[[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]] and [[U.S. Department of Energy]]|date=2012-06-27 (last updated)|accessdate=2012-06-28}}</ref> || 2012-13||Electric car ||All-electric ||73 mpg-e<br>(46 kW-hrs/100 mi)||77 mpg-e<br>(44 kW-hrs/100 mi) || 68 mpg-e<br>(50 kW-hrs/100 mi) ||$1.38||$850||align=left| See (1)
| |
| |- style="text-align:center;"
| |
| | align=left|[[BYD e6]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/Find.do?action=sbs&id=33383|title= 2012 BYD e6 |publisher=Fueleconomy.gov|author=[[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]] and [[U.S. Department of Energy]]|date=2013-03-25 (last updated)|accessdate=2013-03-27}}</ref> || 2012||Electric car ||All-electric ||62 mpg-e<br>(54 kW-hrs/100 mi)||60 mpg-e<br>(56 kW-hrs/100 mi) || 64 mpg-e<br>(52 kW-hrs/100 mi) ||$1.62||$950||align=left| See (1)
| |
| |- style="background:lightgrey;"
| |
| | || || || || || || || || ||
| |
| |- style="text-align:center;"
| |
| | rowspan="2" align=left style="background:#f0f0ff;" |[[Chevrolet Volt]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/Find.do?action=sbs&id=32655|title=2013 Chevrolet Volt|publisher=Fueleconomy.gov|author=[[U. S. Environmental Protection Agency]] and [[U.S. Department of Energy]]|date=2012-11-30 (last updated)|accessdate= 2012-12-02}}</ref>||rowspan="2" style=" background:#f0f0ff;" | 2013|| rowspan="2" style="background:#f0f0ff;" | [[Plug-in electric vehicle w/Range Extender]]||[[Charge-depleting|Electricity only]]||98 mpg-e<br>(35 kW-hrs/100 mi)||- ||-||$1.05 ||rowspan="2"|$900||rowspan="2" align=left| See (1) and (2)<br><small>Most fuel efficient Pi-EV with Range Extender</small><br><small>with a gasoline/electricity <br>combined rating of 62 mpg-e.</small><ref name=EPAMost/>
| |
| |- style="text-align:center;"
| |
| | style="background:#f0f0ff;" | Gasoline only|| style="background:#f0f0ff;"| 37 mpg || style="background:#f0f0ff;"| 35 mpg||style="background:#f0f0ff;" | 40 mpg|| style="background:#f0f0ff;"| $2.57
| |
| |- style="text-align:center;"
| |
| | align=left style="background:#f0f0ff;" |[[Toyota Prius (XW30)|Toyota Prius]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/Find.do?action=sbs&id=33324|title=2013 Toyota Prius|publisher=Fueleconomy.gov|author=[[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]] and [[U.S. Department of Energy]]|date= 2012-11-30 (last updated)|accessdate= 2012-12-02}}</ref> || style="background:#f0f0ff;" |2010-13|| style="background:#f0f0ff;"| [[Hybrid electric vehicle]]||style="background:#f0f0ff;" | Gasoline-electric<br>[[Hybrid electric vehicle|hybrid]] ||style="background:#f0f0ff;" | 50 mpg||style="background:#f0f0ff;" |51 mpg|| style="background:#f0f0ff;" | 48 mpg||style="background:#f0f0ff;" | $1.74||style="background:#f0f0ff;" | $1,050 || style="background:#f0f0ff;" align=left| See (2)<br><small>Most fuel efficient HEV,</small><br><small>together with the [[Prius c]].</small><ref name="U. S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy">{{cite web|url=http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/Find.do?action=sbs&id=33315&id=33324|title=Comparison Side-by-Side - 2013 Toyota Prius c and 2013 Toyota Prius|publisher=Fueleconomy.gov|author=[[U. S. Environmental Protection Agency]] and [[U.S. Department of Energy]]|date=2012-11-30 (last updated)|accessdate= 2012-12-09}}</ref>
| |
| |-
| |
| |colspan="10" style="text-align:left; background:#cfc;"|<small>Notes: All estimated fuel costs based on 15,000 miles annual driving, 45% highway and 55% city.</small><br><small>(1) Values rounded to the nearest $50. Electricity cost of $0.12/kw-hr (as of November 30, 2012). Conversion 1 gallon of gasoline=33.7 kW-hr.</small><br><small>(2) Premium gasoline price of {{USD|3.81}} per gallon (used by the Volt), and regular gasoline price of {{USD|3.49}} per gallon (as of November 30, 2012).</small>
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| =====Plug-in hybrids=====
| |
| The following table compares EPA's estimated out-of-pocket fuel costs and fuel economy ratings of seven [[serial production]] plug-in hybrid electric vehicles rated by EPA by January 2013 versus the most fuel efficient [[hybrid electric vehicle|gasoline-electric hybrid car]], the 2010-13 [[Toyota Prius (XW30)|Toyota Prius third generation]], and EPA's average new 2013 vehicle, which has a fuel economy of {{convert|23|mpgus|abbr=on}}.<ref name=EPAGuide2013>{{cite web|url=http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/pdfs/guides/FEG2013.pdf|title=Model Year 2013 Fuel Economy Guide|publisher=Fueleconomy.gov|author=[[U. S. Environmental Protection Agency]] and [[U.S. Department of Energy]]|date=2012-12-06|accessdate=2012-12-09}} ''See "5-Year Fuel Cost Savings" page 1.''</ref> The table also shows the fuel efficiency for plug-in hybrids in [[all-electric mode]] expressed as KW-hrs/100 mile, the metric used by EPA to rate electric cars before November 2010.<ref name=EVN2009/>
| |
| | |
| <!--Please add to this table only models with complete EPA ratings available for retail sales. Please do not include PHEVs undergoing demonstration programs not available to retail customers - Cars are sorted by combined EPA rating (MPG-e)-->
| |
| {| class=" wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
| |
| ! colspan="9" style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"|Comparison of out-of-pocket fuel costs and fuel economy for plug-in hybrid electric cars<br>rated by EPA with MPGe and conventional MPG<sup>(1)</sup> <br>(as displayed in the [[Monroney label]] and the [[U.S. Department of Energy|US DoE]] fueleconomy.gov website)
| |
| |-
| |
| ! style="background:#cfc;"| Vehicle || style="background:#cfc;"|Year<br>model||style="background:#cfc;"|Operating<br>mode<br>([[EV range]])||style="background:#cfc;"|EPA rated<br> Combined <br>fuel economy || style="background:#cfc;"|EPA rated<br> city <br>fuel economy||style="background:#cfc;"|EPA rated<br> highway<br>fuel economy||style="background:#cfc;"|Fuel cost<br> to drive<br>25 miles ||style="background:#cfc;"|Annual<br> fuel cost<sup>(1)</sup><br><small>(15,000 mi)</small>||style="background:#cfc;"|Notes
| |
| |- style="text-align:center;"
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| | align=left rowspan="2"|[[Honda Accord Plug-in Hybrid]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarreports.com/news/1080780_2014-honda-accord-plug-in-hybrid-priced-sub-41k-115-mpge|title=2014 Honda Accord Plug-In Hybrid Priced Sub-$41K, 115 MPGe|author=Antony Ingram|publisher=Green Car Reports|date=2012-11-30|accessdate=2012-11-30}}</ref>||rowspan="2"|2014||Electricity(13 miles)||115mpg-e||-||- ||-|| rowspan="2"| - ||rowspan="2" align=left|
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| |-style="text-align:center;"
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| |Electricity <br>and gasoline||46 mpg ||47 mpg||46 mpg||-
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| |- style="text-align:center;"
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| | align=left rowspan="2"|[[Ford Fusion Energi]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/phevsbs.shtml|title=New Plug-in Hybrids|publisher=Fueleconomy.gov|author=[[U. S. Environmental Protection Agency]] and [[U.S. Department of Energy]]|date=2013-01-17 (last updated)|accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref>|| rowspan="2"|2013||Electricity <br>and gasoline<br>(21 miles) ||100 mpg-e<br>(34 kW-hrs/100 miles)||108 mpg-e ||92 mpg-e ||$1.17|| rowspan="2"| $950 ||rowspan="2" align=left|<small>The Energi did not use any gasoline</small><br><small>for the first 21 miles in EPA tests,</small><br><small>but depending on the driving style,</small><br><small>the car may use both gasoline<br> and electricity during EV mode.</small>
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| |-style="text-align:center;"
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| |Gasoline only||43 mpg ||44 mpg||41 mpg||$2.03
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| |- style="text-align:center;"
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| | align=left rowspan="2"|[[Ford C-Max Energi]]<ref name=2013PHEVS>{{cite web|url=http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/Find.do?action=sbs&id=33336&id=32655&id=33335&id=32516|title=Compare Side-by-Side - 2013 Ford C-Max PHEV FWD, 2013 Chevrolet Volt, 2013 Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid, and 2012 Fisker Karma|publisher=Fueleconomy.gov|author=[[U. S. Environmental Protection Agency]] and [[U.S. Department of Energy]]|date=2012-11-30 (last updated)|accessdate=2012-12-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://media.ford.com/article_display.cfm?article_id=37343|title=Ford C-MAX Energi: Most Range, More Efficiency and Affordability Than Any Plug-in Hybrid|author=Ford Motor Company|publisher=Media Ford|date=2012-11-08|accessdate=2012-12-02}}''EPA ratings in MPG-e for combine, city and highway cycles.''</ref>|| rowspan="2"|2013||Electricity <br>and gasoline<br>(21 miles) ||100 mpg-e<br>(34 kW-hrs/100 miles)||108 mpg-e ||92 mpg-e ||$1.17|| rowspan="2"| $950 ||rowspan="2" align=left|<small>The Energi did not use any gasoline</small><br><small>for the first 21 miles in EPA tests,</small><br><small>but depending on the driving style,</small><br><small>the car may use both gasoline</small><br><small>and electricity during EV mode.</small>
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| |-style="text-align:center;"
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| |Gasoline only||43 mpg ||44 mpg||41 mpg||$2.03
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| |- style="text-align:center;"
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| | rowspan="2" style="text-align:left;"|[[Chevrolet Volt]]<ref name=2013PHEVS/>||rowspan="2"| 2013||Electricity only<br>(38 miles)||98 mpg-e<br>(35 kW-hrs/100 miles)||-||-||$1.05 ||rowspan="2"| $900 ||rowspan="2" align=left|<small> The 2013 Volt is the most fuel</small><br><small>efficient plug-in hybrid car with a</small><br><small>combined gasoline/electricity</small><br><small>rating of 62 mpg-e.</small><ref name=EPAMost>{{cite web|url=http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/extremeMPG.jsp|title=Most Efficient EPA-Certified Vehicles - Current Model Year|publisher=fueleconomy.gov|author=[[U.S. Department of Energy]] and [[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]]|year=2012|accessdate=2012-12-09}}</ref>
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| |- style="text-align:center;"
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| |Gasoline only||37 mpg ||35 mpg||40 mpg||$2.57
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| |- style="text-align:center;"
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| | rowspan="2" style="text-align:left;"|[[Toyota Prius PHV]]<ref name=2013PHEVS/> ||rowspan="2"| 2013||Electricity <br>and gasoline<br>(11 miles)||95 mpg-e<br>(29 kW-hrs/100 miles<br> plus 0.2 gallons/100 mi)||-||-||$1.44 ||rowspan="2"| $950||rowspan="2" align=left|<small>After the first 11 miles the car</small><br><small>functions like a regular Prius hybrid </small>
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| |- style="text-align:center;"
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| |Gasoline only||50 mpg ||51 mpg||49 mpg||$1.74
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| |- style="text-align:center;"
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| | rowspan="2" style="text-align:left;"|[[Chevrolet Volt]]<ref name=PHEV>{{cite web|url=http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/Find.do?action=sbs&id=31618|title=2011 Chevrolet Volt|publisher=Fueleconomy.gov|author=[[U. S. Environmental Protection Agency]] and [[U.S. Department of Energy]]|date=2012-11-30 (last updated)|accessdate=2012-12-02}}</ref> ||rowspan="2"| 2012||Electricity only||94 mpg-e<br>(36 kW-hrs/100 miles)||95 mpg-e<br>(36 kW-hrs/100 miles)||93 mpg-e<br>(37 kW-hrs/100 miles)||$1.08 ||rowspan="2"|$1,000||rowspan="2" align=left|
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| |- style="text-align:center;"
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| |Gasoline only||37 mpg ||35 mpg||40 mpg||$2.57
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| |- style="text-align:center;"
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| | rowspan="2" style="text-align:left;"| [[Fisker Karma]]<ref name=2013PHEVS/> ||rowspan="2"| 2012||Electricity only<br>(33 miles)||54 mpg-e<br>(62 kW-hrs/100 miles)||-||-||$1.87 || rowspan="2"|$1,750 ||rowspan="2" align=left|
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| |- style="text-align:center;"
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| |Gasoline only||20 mpg ||20 mpg||21 mpg||$4.76
| |
| |- style="background:lightgrey;"
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| | || || || || || || || ||
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| |- style="text-align:center;"
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| | align=left style="background:#f0f0ff;" | [[Toyota Prius (XW30)|Toyota Prius]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/Find.do?action=sbs&id=33324|title=Compare Side-by-Side - 2013 Toyota Prius|publisher=Fueleconomy.gov|author=[[U. S. Environmental Protection Agency]] and [[U.S. Department of Energy]]|date=2012-11-30 (last updated)|accessdate= 2012-12-02}}</ref> || style="background:#f0f0ff;" | 2013|| style="background:#f0f0ff;" |Gasoline-electric<br>[[Hybrid electric vehicle|hybrid]] || style="background:#f0f0ff;" | 50 mpg||style="background:#f0f0ff;" | 51 mpg|| style="background:#f0f0ff;" | 48 mpg|| style="background:#f0f0ff;" | $1.74||style="background:#f0f0ff;" | $1,050 || align=left style="background:#f0f0ff;" |<small>Most fuel efficient hybrid electric</small><br><small>car, together with the [[Prius c]].</small><ref name="U. S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy"/>
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| |- style="text-align:center;"
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| | align=left style="background:#f0f0ff;" | [[Ford Taurus#Facelift (2013–present)|Ford Taurus FWD]]<ref name=EPAavg2013/><br>(Average new car)|| style="background:#f0f0ff;" |2013|| style="background:#f0f0ff;" | Gasoline only||style="background:#f0f0ff;" | 23 mpg||style="background:#f0f0ff;" | 19 mpg|| style="background:#f0f0ff;" | 29 mpg||style="background:#f0f0ff;" | $3.79||style="background:#f0f0ff;" | $2,300 || style="background:#f0f0ff;" align=left|<small>Other 2013 models achieving</small><br><small>23 mpg include the [[Chrysler 200]],</small><br><small>[[Toyota Venza#2013 Facelift|Toyota Venza]], and</small><br><small>[[Hyundai Santa Fe#Third generation (2013–)|Hyundai Santa Fe Sport 2WD]].</small><ref name=EPAavg2013>{{cite web|url=http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/Find.do?action=sbs&id=32972&id=32235&id=32551&id=32817|title=Comparison Side-by-Side -2013 Chrysler 200, 2013 Ford Taurus FWD, 2013 Toyota Venza, and 2013 Hyundai Santa Fe Sport 2WD|publisher=Fueleconomy.gov|author=[[U. S. Environmental Protection Agency]] and [[U.S. Department of Energy]]|date=2012-11-30 (last updated)|accessdate= 2012-12-09}}</ref>
| |
| |-
| |
| |colspan="9" style="text-align:left; background:#cfc;"|<small>Notes: (1) Based on 45% highway and 55% city driving. Electricity cost of {{USD|0.12}}/kw-hr, premium gasoline price of {{USD|3.81}} per gallon (used by the Volt and Karma), and regular gasoline price of {{USD|3.49}}<br> per gallon (as of November 30, 2012). Conversion 1 gallon of gasoline=33.7 kW-hr.</small><!-- (3) Based on 65% electric mode and 35% gasoline-powered mode-->
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ===Conversion using GGE===
| |
| {{Main|Gasoline gallon equivalent}}
| |
| The same method can be applied to any other alternative fuel vehicle when that vehicle's energy consumption is known. Generally the energy consumption of the vehicle is expressed in units other than W·h/mile, or Btu/mile so additional arithmetic is required to convert to a [[gasoline gallon equivalent]] (GGE) of 115,000 BTU/mile.{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}}
| |
| | |
| ===Hydrogen example with GGE===
| |
| The 2008 [[Honda FCX Clarity]] is advertised to have a vehicle consumption of 72 mi/kg-{{chem|H|2}}.<ref name="honda">{{Cite journal
| |
| |title=Honda FCX Clarity Fuel Cell Vehicle Lease Program Begins with First Customer Delivery
| |
| |publisher=[[Honda]]
| |
| |year=2008
| |
| |url=http://world.honda.com/news/2008/4080725FCX-Clarity/
| |
| |accessdate=2008-12-02
| |
| |postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}
| |
| }}</ref> Hydrogen has an energy density of 120 [[Joule|MJ]]/kg (113,738 BTU/kg),<ref name="eere">{{Cite journal
| |
| |title=HFCIT Hydrogen Storage: Basics
| |
| |year=2007
| |
| |publisher=[[United States Department of Energy]]
| |
| |url=http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/storage/basics.html
| |
| |accessdate=2008-12-02
| |
| |postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}
| |
| }}</ref> by converting this energy density to a GGE, it is found that 1.012 kg of [[hydrogen]] is needed to meet the equivalent energy of one gallon of gasoline. This conversion factor can now be used to calculate the MPGe for this vehicle.
| |
| | |
| :<math> MPGe = vehicle\ efficiency \times {GGE}</math>,
| |
| :<math> MPGe = 72 \frac{mi}{kg-H_2} \times {1.012 \frac{kg-H_2}{gallon\ gasoline}} = 72.8</math>
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| | |
| ==Life cycle assessment==
| |
| | |
| ===Pump/Well-to-wheel===
| |
| EPA's miles per gallon equivalent metric shown in the window sticker does not measure a vehicle's full cycle [[Energy conversion efficiency|energy efficiency]] or [[well-to-wheel]] life cycle. Rather, the EPA presents MPGe in the same manner as MPG for conventional [[internal combustion engine]] vehicles as displayed in the [[Monroney sticker]], and in both cases the rating only considers the pump-to-wheel or wall-to-wheel energy consumption, i.e. it measures the energy for which the owner usually pays. For EVs the energy cost includes the conversions from AC from the wall used to charge the battery<ref name="Argonne"/> The EPA ratings displayed in window stickers do not account for the energy consumption upstream, which includes the energy or fuel required to generate the electricity or to extract and produce the liquid fuel; the energy losses due to power transmission; or the energy consumed for the transportation of the fuel from the well to the station.<ref name=DOE2000/><ref name="MIT"/>
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| | |
| ===Petroleum-equivalency factor (PEF) — a CAFE metric===
| |
| | |
| In 2000 the [[United States Department of Energy]] (DOE) established the methodology for calculating the petroleum-equivalent fuel economy of electric vehicles based on the [[well-to-wheel]] (WTW) gasoline-equivalent energy content of electricity (Eg). The methodology considers the upstream efficiency of the processes involved in the two fuel cycles, and considers the national average electricity generation and transmission efficiencies because a [[battery electric vehicle]] burns its fuel (mainly fossil fuels) off-board at the power generation plant.<ref name=DOE2000>{{Cite web|title=Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Research, Development, and Demonstration Program; Petroleum-Equivalent Fuel Economy Calculation; Final Rule|url=http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=2000_register&docid=00-14446-filed.pdf|date=2000-06-12|accessdate=2011-02-20}}</ref> This methodology is used by carmakers to estimate credits into their overall [[Corporate Average Fuel Economy]] (CAFE) for manufacturing [[electric drive vehicle]]s.<ref name=AEI2009/>
| |
| | |
| The equations for determining the petroleum equivalent fuel economy of electric vehicles are the following:<ref name=DOE2000/>
| |
| | |
| :PEF = Eg * 1/0.15 * AF * DPF
| |
| ::where:
| |
| :::PEF = Petroleum-equivalent fuel economy
| |
| :::Eg = Gasoline-equivalent energy content of electricity factor
| |
| :::1/0.15 = "Fuel content" factor or incentive factor. DoE selected this value to keep consistency with existing regulatory and statutory procedures, and to provide a similar treatment to manufacturers of all types of [[alternative fuel vehicle]]s
| |
| :::AF = Petroleum-fueled accessory factor
| |
| :::DPF = Driving pattern factor
| |
| | |
| The gasoline-equivalent energy content of electricity factor, abbreviated as {{Not a typo|Eg}}, is defined as:
| |
| :Eg = gasoline-equivalent energy content of electricity = (Tg * Tt * C) / Tp
| |
| ::where:
| |
| :::Tg = U.S. average fossil-fuel electricity generation efficiency = 0.328
| |
| :::Tt = U.S. average electricity transmission efficiency = 0.924
| |
| :::Tp = Petroleum refining and distribution efficiency = 0.830
| |
| :::C = Watt-hours of energy per gallon of gasoline conversion factor = 33,705 Wh/gal
| |
| :::Eg = (0.328 * 0.924 * 33705)/0.830 = 12,307 Wh/gal
| |
| | |
| :PEF = Eg * 1/0.15 * AF * DPF = 12,307 Wh/gal/0.15 * AF * DPF
| |
| :PEF = 82,049 Wh/gal * AF * DPF
| |
| | |
| The petroleum-fueled accessory factor, AF, is equal to 1 if the electric drive vehicle does not have petroleum-powered accessories installed, and 0.90 if it does.
| |
| | |
| The driving pattern factor, DPF, is equal to 1, as DoE considered that electric vehicles eligible for inclusion in CAFE will offer capabilities, perhaps excepting driving range, similar to those of conventional vehicles.
| |
| | |
| In the example provided by the US DoE in its final rule, an [[electric car]] with an energy consumption of 265 [[Watt-hour]] per mile in urban driving, and 220 Watt-hour per mile in highway driving, resulted in a petroleum-equivalent fuel economy of 335.24 miles per gallon, based on a driving schedule factor of 55 percent urban, and 45 percent highway, and using a petroleum equivalency factor of 82,049 Watt-hours per gallon.<ref name=DOE2000/>
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| | |
| ==See also==
| |
| *[[Alternative propulsion]]
| |
| *[[Corporate Average Fuel Economy]] (CAFE)
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| *[[Energy conversion efficiency]]
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| *[[Energy density]]
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| *[[Fuel efficiency in transportation]]
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| *[[Gasoline gallon equivalent]] (GGE)
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| | |
| ==References==
| |
| {{Reflist|30em}}
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| | |
| ==External links==
| |
| * [http://energy.gov/articles/egallon-what-it-and-why-it-s-important eGallon Calculator: Compare the costs of driving with electricity], [[U.S. Department of Energy]]
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| {{DEFAULTSORT:Miles per gallon gasoline equivalent}}
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| [[Category:Automobiles]]
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| [[Category:Energy conservation]]
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| [[Category:Energy economics]]
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| [[Category:Physical quantities]]
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| [[Category:Green vehicles]]
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| [[Category:Transport economics]]
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| [[Category:Vehicles]]
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