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''This article is about Water activity in food science. For a more general discussion, see [[thermodynamic activity]].''
 
 
'''Water activity''' or a<sub>w</sub> was developed to account for the intensity with which water associates with various non-aqueous constituents and solids. Simply stated, it is a measure of the energy status of the water in a system.
 
Water activity is defined as the [[partial pressure|partial]] [[vapor pressure]] of water in a substance divided by the standard state partial vapor pressure of water. In the field of food science, the standard state is most often defined as the partial vapor pressure of pure water at the same [[temperature]]. Using this particular definition, pure [[distilled water]] has a water activity of exactly one.
 
As the temperature increases, a<sub>w</sub> typically increases, except in some products with crystalline [[salt]] or [[sugar]].
 
Higher a<sub>w</sub> substances tend to support more [[microorganisms]]. [[Bacterium|Bacteria]] usually require at least 0.91, and [[fungi]] at least 0.7.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rockland |first1=L.B. |last2=Beuchat |first2=L.R. |year=1987 |title=Water Activity:Theory and Applications to Food |edition=2nd |location=New York |publisher=Marcell Dekker }}</ref> See also [[fermentation]].
 
Water migrates from areas of high a<sub>w</sub> to areas of low a<sub>w</sub>. For example, if [[honey]] (a<sub>w</sub> ≈ 0.6) is exposed to humid [[air]] (a<sub>w</sub> ≈ 0.7), the honey will [[hygroscopy|absorb water from the air]]. If [[salami]] (a<sub>w</sub> ≈ 0.87) is exposed to dry air (a<sub>w</sub> ≈ 0.5), the salami will [[desiccation|dry out]], which could [[drying (food)|preserve]] it or [[staling|spoil]] it.
 
==Formulae==
Definition of a<sub>w</sub>:
:<math> a_w \equiv p / p_0 </math>
where p is the vapor pressure of water in the substance, and p₀ is the vapor pressure of pure water at the same temperature.
 
Alternate definition:
:<math> a_w \equiv l_w x_w </math>
where l<sub>w</sub> is the [[activity coefficient]] of water and x<sub>w</sub> is the mole fraction of water in the aqueous fraction.
 
Relationship to [[relative humidity]]:
The relative humidity of air in equilibrium with a sample is called the Equilibrium Relative Humidity (ERH).<ref name="isbn0-632-05327-5">{{cite book |last1=Young |first1=Linda |last2=Cauvain |first2=Stanley P. |title=Bakery food manufacture and quality: water control and effects |publisher=Blackwell Science |location=Oxford |year=2000 |pages= |isbn=0-632-05327-5 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref>
:<math> \mathrm{ERH} = a_w \times 100\% </math>
 
Estimated mold-free shelf life in days at 21° C:
:<math> \mathrm{MFSL} = 10^{7.91 - 8.1 a_w} </math><ref name="isbn0-834-21782-1">{{cite book |last1=Man |first1=C.M.D. |last2=Jones |first2=Adrian A. |title=Shelf Life Evaluation of Foods |publisher=Springer |location= |year=2000 |pages= |isbn=0-834-21782-1 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref>
 
==Uses for water activity==
Water activity is an important consideration for food product design and food safety.
 
===Food product design===
Food designers use water activity to formulate [[shelf-stable food]]. If a product is kept below a certain water activity, then mold growth is inhibited. This results in a longer [[shelf life]].
 
Water activity values can also help limit [[moisture migration]] within a food product made with different [[ingredient]]s. If raisins of a higher water activity are packaged with bran flakes of a lower water activity, the water from the raisins will migrate to the bran flakes over time, resulting in hard raisins and soggy bran flakes. Food formulators use water activity to predict how much moisture migration will affect their product.
 
===Food safety===
Water activity is used in many cases as a [[critical control point]] for [[Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points]] (HACCP) programs. Samples of the food product are periodically taken from the production area and tested to ensure water activity values are within a specified range for food quality and safety. Measurements can be made in as little as five minutes, and are made regularly in most major food production facilities.
 
For many years, researchers tried to equate bacterial growth potential with [[water content]]. They found that the values were not universal, but specific to each food product. W. J. Scott first established that [[bacterial growth]] correlated with water activity, not water content, in 1953. It is firmly established that growth of bacteria is inhibited at specific water activity values. U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) regulations for intermediate moisture foods are based on these values.
 
Lowering the water activity of a food product should not be seen as a [[kill step]]. Studies in [[powdered milk]] show that viable cells can exist at much lower water activity values, but that they will never grow.{{Cn|date=February 2013}} Over time, bacterial levels will decline.
 
==Water activity measurement==
Water activity values are obtained by either a resistive electrolytic, a [[capacitance]] or a [[dew point]] [[hygrometer]].
 
===Resistive electrolytic hygrometers===
Resistive electrolytic hygrometers respectively sensors consist of a sensing element in form of a liquid electrolyte which is held in between of two small glass rods by capillary forces. The electrolyte changes its resistance if water vapor is absorbed or desorbed. The resistance is directly proportional to relative air humidity and also to water activity of the sample once [[vapor–liquid equilibrium]] has been established. This relation can be checked on a regular base by either a [[verification and validation|verification]] or [[calibration]] using salt-water mixtures which provide a well-defined and reproducible air humidity in the measurement chamber.
 
The sensor does not have any physically given hysteresis as it is known from capacitance hygrometers and sensors, and does not require regular cleaning as its surface is not the effectively sensing element. Volatiles have in principle an influence on the measurement performance, especially those which [[dissociation (chemistry)|dissociate]] in the electrolyte and thereby change its resistance. Such influences can easily be avoided by using chemical protection filters which absorb the volatile compound before arriving at the sensor.
 
===Capacitance hygrometers===
Capacitance hygrometers consist of two charged plates separated by a [[polymeric membrane|polymer membrane]] [[dielectric]]. As the membrane adsorbs water, its ability to hold a [[electric charge|charge]] increases and the capacitance is measured. This value is roughly proportional to the water activity as determined by a sensor-specific [[calibration]].
 
Capacitance hygrometers are not affected by most [[volatility (chemistry)|volatile]] chemicals and can be much smaller than other alternative sensors. They do not require cleaning, but are less accurate than dew point hygrometers (+/- 0.015 a<sub>w</sub>). They should have regular calibration checks and can be affected by residual water in the polymer membrane (hysteresis).
 
===Dew point hygrometers===
[[File:Relative Humidity.png|thumb|400px|right|Red line shows saturation]]
The temperature at which [[dew]] forms on a clean surface is directly related to the [[vapor pressure]] of the air. Dew point hygrometers work by placing a mirror over a closed sample chamber. The mirror is cooled until the dew point temperature is measured by means of an [[optical sensor]]. This temperature is then used to find the [[relative humidity]] of the chamber using [[psychrometrics]] charts.
 
This method is theoretically the most accurate (+/- 0.003 a<sub>w</sub>) and often the fastest. The sensor requires cleaning if debris accumulates on the mirror.
 
===Equilibration===
With either method, [[vapor–liquid equilibrium]] must occur in the sample chamber. This will take place over time or can be aided by the addition of a fan in the chamber. [[Thermal equilibrium]] must also take place unless the sample temperature is measured.
 
==Moisture content==
Water activity is related to [[water content]] in a [[nonlinear system|non-linear relationship]] known as a [[moisture sorption isotherm]] curve. These isotherms are substance- and temperature-specific. Isotherms can be used to help predict product stability over time in different storage conditions.
 
==Use in humidity control==
There is net evaporation from a solution with a water activity greater than the relative humidity of its surroundings. There is net absorption of water by a solution with a water activity less than the relative humidity of its surroundings. Therefore, in an enclosed space, a solution can be used to regulate humidity.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Demchick PH |year=1984 |title=Taking control of chamber humidity |journal=[[The Science Teacher]] |volume=51 |issue=7 |pages=29‑31}}</ref>
 
==Selected a<sub>w</sub> values==
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+Food
! Substance
! a<sub>w</sub>
! Source
|-
| Distilled Water || 1.00 || <ref name="Marianski5">''Marianski'', 5</ref>
|-
| Tap water || 0.99 || {{Cn|date=February 2013}}
|-
| Raw meats || 0.99 || <ref name="Marianski5"/>
|-
| [[Milk]] || 0.97 || {{Cn|date=February 2013}}
|-
| Juice || 0.97 || {{Cn|date=February 2013}}
|-
| [[Salami]] || 0.87 || <ref name="Marianski5"/>
|-
| Cooked [[bacon]] || < 0.85 || {{Cn|date=February 2013}}
|-
| Saturated [[Sodium chloride|NaCl]] solution || 0.75 || {{Cn|date=February 2013}}
|-
| Point at which cereal loses crunch || 0.65 || {{Cn|date=February 2013}}
|-
| Dried [[fruit]] || 0.60 || <ref name="Marianski5"/>
|-
| Typical indoor air || 0.5 - 0.7 || {{Cn|date=February 2013}}
|-
| Honey || 0.5 - 0.7 || {{Cn|date=February 2013}}
|}
 
{| class="wikitable"
+Microorganisms
! Microorganism Inhibited
! a<sub>w</sub>
! Source
|-
|''[[Clostridium botulinum]]'' A, B || 0.97 || {{Cn|date=February 2013}}
|-
|''[[Clostridium botulinum]]'' E || 0.97 || {{Cn|date=February 2013}}
|-
|''[[Pseudomonas fluorescens]]'' || 0.97 || {{Cn|date=February 2013}}
|-
|''[[Clostridium perfringens]]'' || 0.95 || {{Cn|date=February 2013}}
|-
|''[[Escherichia coli]]'' || 0.95 || {{Cn|date=February 2013}}
|-
|''[[Salmonella]]'' || 0.93 || <ref name="Shaw">''Shaw'', 1</ref>
|-
|''[[Vibrio cholerae]]'' || 0.95 || {{Cn|date=February 2013}}
|-
|''[[Bacillus cereus]]'' || 0.93 || {{Cn|date=February 2013}}
|-
|''[[Listeria monocytogenes]]'' || 0.92 || {{Cn|date=February 2013}}
|-
|''[[Bacillus subtilis]]'' || 0.91 || {{Cn|date=February 2013}}
|-
|''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]'' || 0.86 || <ref name="Marianski7">''Marianski'', 7</ref>
|-
|Most [[mold]]s || 0.80 || <ref name="Marianski7"/>
|-
|No microbial proliferation || 0.50 || {{Cn|date=February 2013}}
|}
 
== Notes ==
{{reflist}}
 
==References==
*{{cite book |last1=Rockland |first1=L.B. |last2=Beuchat |first2=L.R. |year=1987 |title=Water Activity:Theory and Applications to Food |edition=2nd |location=New York |publisher=Marcell Dekker }}
*{{cite book |title=The Art of Making Fermented Sausages |last1=Marianski |first1=Stanley |last2=Marianski |first2=adam |year=2008 |publisher=Outskirts Press |location=Denver, Colorado |isbn=978-1-4327-3257-8}}
*{{cite book |title=Salmonella: Create the most undesirable environment|last=Shaw|first=Angela|publisher=Iowa State University|location=Ames, IA|year=2013}}
*{{cite book |title=Sourcebook of Flavors|last=Reineccius|first=Gary |publisher=Springer |location=Berlin |year=1998|isbn=0-8342-1307-9}}
*{{cite book |editor-last=Fennema |editor-first=O.R. |year=1985 |title=Food Chemistry |edition=2nd |location=New York |publisher=Marcell Dekker, Inc. |pages=46–50}}
*{{cite book |last1=Bell |first1=L.N. |last2=Labuza |first2=T.P. |year=2000 |title=Practical Aspects of Moisture Sorption Isotherm Measurement and Use |edition=2nd |publisher=AACC Egan Press |location=Egan, MN}}
 
==External links==
*[http://www.epluse.com/en/products/moisture-in-oil-instrumentation/ Moisture in Oil Sensors]
*[http://www.epluse.com/en/products/dew-point-measurement/ Dew Point Sensors]
 
[[Category:Food science]]
[[Category:Water]]

Revision as of 17:34, 25 September 2013

Template:Food safety

This article is about Water activity in food science. For a more general discussion, see thermodynamic activity.


Water activity or aw was developed to account for the intensity with which water associates with various non-aqueous constituents and solids. Simply stated, it is a measure of the energy status of the water in a system.

Water activity is defined as the partial vapor pressure of water in a substance divided by the standard state partial vapor pressure of water. In the field of food science, the standard state is most often defined as the partial vapor pressure of pure water at the same temperature. Using this particular definition, pure distilled water has a water activity of exactly one.

As the temperature increases, aw typically increases, except in some products with crystalline salt or sugar.

Higher aw substances tend to support more microorganisms. Bacteria usually require at least 0.91, and fungi at least 0.7.[1] See also fermentation.

Water migrates from areas of high aw to areas of low aw. For example, if honey (aw ≈ 0.6) is exposed to humid air (aw ≈ 0.7), the honey will absorb water from the air. If salami (aw ≈ 0.87) is exposed to dry air (aw ≈ 0.5), the salami will dry out, which could preserve it or spoil it.

Formulae

Definition of aw:

aw≡p/p0

where p is the vapor pressure of water in the substance, and p₀ is the vapor pressure of pure water at the same temperature.

Alternate definition:

aw≡lwxw

where lw is the activity coefficient of water and xw is the mole fraction of water in the aqueous fraction.

Relationship to relative humidity: The relative humidity of air in equilibrium with a sample is called the Equilibrium Relative Humidity (ERH).[2]

ERH=aw×100%

Estimated mold-free shelf life in days at 21° C:

MFSL=107.91−8.1aw[3]

Uses for water activity

Water activity is an important consideration for food product design and food safety.

Food product design

Food designers use water activity to formulate shelf-stable food. If a product is kept below a certain water activity, then mold growth is inhibited. This results in a longer shelf life.

Water activity values can also help limit moisture migration within a food product made with different ingredients. If raisins of a higher water activity are packaged with bran flakes of a lower water activity, the water from the raisins will migrate to the bran flakes over time, resulting in hard raisins and soggy bran flakes. Food formulators use water activity to predict how much moisture migration will affect their product.

Food safety

Water activity is used in many cases as a critical control point for Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) programs. Samples of the food product are periodically taken from the production area and tested to ensure water activity values are within a specified range for food quality and safety. Measurements can be made in as little as five minutes, and are made regularly in most major food production facilities.

For many years, researchers tried to equate bacterial growth potential with water content. They found that the values were not universal, but specific to each food product. W. J. Scott first established that bacterial growth correlated with water activity, not water content, in 1953. It is firmly established that growth of bacteria is inhibited at specific water activity values. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulations for intermediate moisture foods are based on these values.

Lowering the water activity of a food product should not be seen as a kill step. Studies in powdered milk show that viable cells can exist at much lower water activity values, but that they will never grow.Template:Cn Over time, bacterial levels will decline.

Water activity measurement

Water activity values are obtained by either a resistive electrolytic, a capacitance or a dew point hygrometer.

Resistive electrolytic hygrometers

Resistive electrolytic hygrometers respectively sensors consist of a sensing element in form of a liquid electrolyte which is held in between of two small glass rods by capillary forces. The electrolyte changes its resistance if water vapor is absorbed or desorbed. The resistance is directly proportional to relative air humidity and also to water activity of the sample once vapor–liquid equilibrium has been established. This relation can be checked on a regular base by either a verification or calibration using salt-water mixtures which provide a well-defined and reproducible air humidity in the measurement chamber.

The sensor does not have any physically given hysteresis as it is known from capacitance hygrometers and sensors, and does not require regular cleaning as its surface is not the effectively sensing element. Volatiles have in principle an influence on the measurement performance, especially those which dissociate in the electrolyte and thereby change its resistance. Such influences can easily be avoided by using chemical protection filters which absorb the volatile compound before arriving at the sensor.

Capacitance hygrometers

Capacitance hygrometers consist of two charged plates separated by a polymer membrane dielectric. As the membrane adsorbs water, its ability to hold a charge increases and the capacitance is measured. This value is roughly proportional to the water activity as determined by a sensor-specific calibration.

Capacitance hygrometers are not affected by most volatile chemicals and can be much smaller than other alternative sensors. They do not require cleaning, but are less accurate than dew point hygrometers (+/- 0.015 aw). They should have regular calibration checks and can be affected by residual water in the polymer membrane (hysteresis).

Dew point hygrometers

File:Relative Humidity.png
Red line shows saturation

The temperature at which dew forms on a clean surface is directly related to the vapor pressure of the air. Dew point hygrometers work by placing a mirror over a closed sample chamber. The mirror is cooled until the dew point temperature is measured by means of an optical sensor. This temperature is then used to find the relative humidity of the chamber using psychrometrics charts.

This method is theoretically the most accurate (+/- 0.003 aw) and often the fastest. The sensor requires cleaning if debris accumulates on the mirror.

Equilibration

With either method, vapor–liquid equilibrium must occur in the sample chamber. This will take place over time or can be aided by the addition of a fan in the chamber. Thermal equilibrium must also take place unless the sample temperature is measured.

Moisture content

Water activity is related to water content in a non-linear relationship known as a moisture sorption isotherm curve. These isotherms are substance- and temperature-specific. Isotherms can be used to help predict product stability over time in different storage conditions.

Use in humidity control

There is net evaporation from a solution with a water activity greater than the relative humidity of its surroundings. There is net absorption of water by a solution with a water activity less than the relative humidity of its surroundings. Therefore, in an enclosed space, a solution can be used to regulate humidity.[4]

Selected aw values

Food
Substance aw Source
Distilled Water 1.00 [5]
Tap water 0.99 Template:Cn
Raw meats 0.99 [5]
Milk 0.97 Template:Cn
Juice 0.97 Template:Cn
Salami 0.87 [5]
Cooked bacon < 0.85 Template:Cn
Saturated NaCl solution 0.75 Template:Cn
Point at which cereal loses crunch 0.65 Template:Cn
Dried fruit 0.60 [5]
Typical indoor air 0.5 - 0.7 Template:Cn
Honey 0.5 - 0.7 Template:Cn
+Microorganisms
Microorganism Inhibited aw Source
Clostridium botulinum A, B 0.97 Template:Cn
Clostridium botulinum E 0.97 Template:Cn
Pseudomonas fluorescens 0.97 Template:Cn
Clostridium perfringens 0.95 Template:Cn
Escherichia coli 0.95 Template:Cn
Salmonella 0.93 [6]
Vibrio cholerae 0.95 Template:Cn
Bacillus cereus 0.93 Template:Cn
Listeria monocytogenes 0.92 Template:Cn
Bacillus subtilis 0.91 Template:Cn
Staphylococcus aureus 0.86 [7]
Most molds 0.80 [7]
No microbial proliferation 0.50 Template:Cn

Notes

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References

  • 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  • 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  • 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  • 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  • 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  • 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534

External links

  1. ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  2. ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  3. ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

    My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
  4. ↑ One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

    In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

    Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

    Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

    A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

    The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

    There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 Marianski, 5
  6. ↑ Shaw, 1
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Marianski, 7
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