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| {{Thermoelectric effect|cTopic=Applications}}
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| '''Thermoelectric cooling''' uses the [[Peltier effect]] to create a [[heat]] flux between the junction of two different types of materials. A Peltier cooler, heater, or [[thermoelectric]] heat pump is a solid-state active [[heat pump]] which transfers heat from one side of the device to the other, with consumption of [[electrical energy]], depending on the direction of the current. Such an instrument is also called a Peltier device, Peltier heat pump, solid state refrigerator, or thermoelectric cooler (TEC). They can be used either for heating or for cooling (refrigeration),<ref>Taylor, R.A., Solbrekken, G., ''[http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/login.jsp?tp=&arnumber=4358522&url=http%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fxpls%2Fabs_all.jsp%3Farnumber%3D4358522 Comprehensive system-level optimization of thermoelectric devices for electronic cooling applications]'', Components and Packaging Technologies, IEEE Transactions on (Volume:31 , Issue: 1 )</ref> although in practice the main application is cooling. It can also be used as a temperature controller that either heats or cools.<ref name=TEC>{{cite web|title=Thermoelectric Coolers Basics|url=http://www.tec-microsystems.com/EN/Intro_Thermoelectric_Coolers.html|work=TEC Microsystems|accessdate=16 March 2013}}</ref>
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| This technology is far less commonly applied to refrigeration than [[vapor-compression refrigeration]] is. The main advantages of a Peltier cooler (compared to a vapor-compression refrigerator) are its lack of moving parts or circulating liquid, and its small size and flexible shape (form factor). Its main disadvantage is high cost and poor power efficiency. Many researchers and companies are trying to develop Peltier coolers that are both cheap and efficient. (See [[Thermoelectric materials]].)
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| A Peltier cooler can also be used as a [[thermoelectric generator]]. When operated as a cooler, a voltage is applied across the device, and as a result, a difference in temperature will build up between the two sides.<ref name=Tellurex>{{cite web|title=Frequently asked questions about our product|url=http://www.tellurex.com/technology/peltier-faq.php|work=Tellurex|accessdate=16 March 2013}}</ref> When operated as a generator, one side of the device is heated to a temperature greater than the other side, and as a result, a difference in voltage will build up between the two sides (the [[Seebeck effect]]). However, a well-designed Peltier cooler will be a mediocre thermoelectric generator and vice-versa, due to different design and packaging requirements.
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| == Operating principle ==
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| [[File:Peltierelement.png|thumb|right|300px|Peltier element schematic. Thermoelectric legs are thermally in parallel and electrically in series.]]
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| [[Image:USB Beverage Cooler.jpg|thumb|right|A USB-powered beverage cooler]]
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| {{main|Peltier effect}}
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| Thermoelectric coolers operate by the [[Peltier effect]] (which also goes by the more general name [[thermoelectric effect]]). The device has two sides, and when DC current flows through the device, it brings heat from one side to the other, so that one side gets cooler while the other gets hotter. The "hot" side is attached to a heat sink so that it remains at ambient temperature, while the cool side goes below room temperature. In some applications, multiple coolers can be cascaded together for lower temperature.
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| == Construction ==
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| Two unique semi-conductors, one n-type and one p-type, are used because they need to have different electron densities. The semi-conductors are placed thermally in parallel to each other and electrically in series and then joined with a thermally conducting plate on each side. When a voltage is applied to the free ends of the two semiconductors there is a flow of DC current across the junction of the semi-conductors causing a temperature difference. The side with the cooling plate absorbs heat which is then moved to the other side end of the device where the heat sink is. TECs are typically connected side by side and sandwiched between two ceramic plates. The cooling ability of the total unit is then proportional to the number of TECs in it.
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| Some benefits of using a TEC are:
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| * No moving parts so maintenance is required less frequently
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| * No chlorofluorocarbons
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| * Temperature control to within fractions of a degree can be maintained
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| * Flexible shape (form factor); in particular, they can have a very small size
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| * Can be used in environments that are smaller or more severe than conventional refrigeration
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| * Has a long life, with mean time between failures (MTBF) exceeding 100,000 hours
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| * Is controllable via changing the input voltage/current
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| Some disadvantages<ref>http://www.engr.sjsu.edu/ndejong/ME_146.htm - PowerPoint under the "Thermoelectric Coolers" link</ref> of using a TEC are:
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| * Only a limited amount of heat flux is able to be dissipated
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| * Relegated to applications with low heat flux
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| * Not as efficient, in terms of coefficient of performance, as vapor-compression systems (see below)
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| == Performance ==
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| A TEC will typically produce a maximum temperature difference of 70°C (158°F) between its hot and cold sides.<ref name=HSG>{{cite web|title=The Heatsink Guide|url=http://www.heatsink-guide.com/peltier.htm|accessdate=3 May 2013}}</ref> The more heat you wish to move using a TEC, the less efficient it becomes, because the TEC needs to dissipate ''' ''both'' ''' the heat being moved, as well as the heat it generates itself from its own power consumption. The amount of heat that can be absorbed is proportional to the current and time.
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| :<math>\ W=PIt</math>
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| where P is the Peltier Coefficient, I is the current, and t is the time. The Peltier Coefficient is dependent on temperature and the materials the TEC is made of.
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| Thermoelectric junctions are about 4 times less efficient in refrigeration applications than conventional means (they offer around 10-15% efficiency of the ideal [[Carnot cycle]] [[refrigerator]], compared with 40–60% achieved by conventional compression cycle systems (reverse [[Rankine cycle|Rankine]] systems using compression/expansion).<ref name=PNL>{{cite web|last=Brown|first=D.R.|title=The Prospects of Alternatives to Vapor Compression Technology for Space Cooling and Food Refrigeration Applications|url=http://www.pnl.gov/main/publications/external/technical_reports/pnnl-19259.pdf|work=Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNL)|publisher=U.S. Department of Energy|accessdate=16 March 2013|coauthors=N. Fernandez, J.A. Dirks, T.B. Stout|date=March 2010}}</ref>) Due to this lower efficiency, thermoelectric cooling is generally only used in environments where the solid state nature (no [[moving parts]], low maintenance, compact size, and orientation insensitivity) outweighs pure efficiency.
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| Peltier (thermoelectric) cooler performance is a function of ambient temperature, hot and cold side heat exchanger ([[heat sink]]) performance, thermal load, Peltier module (thermopile) geometry, and Peltier electrical parameters.<ref name="PCB Heaven">{{cite web|title=PCB Heaven - Peltier Elements Explained|url=http://pcbheaven.com/wikipages/The_Peltier_Thermo-Element/|work=PCB Heaven|publisher=PCB Heaven|accessdate=1 May 2013}}</ref>
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| Requirements for Thermoelectric materials
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| * Narrow band-gap semiconductors because of room temperature operation
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| * Heavy elements because of their high mobility and low thermal conductivity
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| * Large unit cell, complex structure
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| * Highly anisotropic or highly symmetric
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| * Complex compositions
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| Common materials used as semi-conductors include [[bismuth telluride]], [[lead telluride]], [[silicon germanium]], and bismuth-antimony alloys. Of these bismuth telluride is the most commonly used. New high-performance materials for thermoelectric cooling are being actively researched; see the article [[Thermoelectric materials]] for more information.
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| == Uses ==
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| Thermoelectric coolers are typically used for applications that require heat removal ranging from milliwatts to several thousand watts. They can be made for applications as small as a beverage cooler or as large as a submarine or railroad car.
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| ===Consumer products===
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| Peltier elements are commonly used in consumer products. For example, Peltier elements are used in [[camping]], portable coolers, cooling electronic components and small instruments. The cooling effect of Peltier heat pumps can also be used to extract water from the air in [[dehumidifier]]s. A camping/car type electric [[cooler]] can typically reduce the temperature by up to 20°C (36°F) below the ambient temperature. With feedback circuitry, peltiers can be used to implement highly stable temperature controllers that keep desired temperature within +/-0.01 Celsius. Such stability may be used in precise laser applications to avoid laser wavelength drifting as environment temperature changes. Climate-controlled jackets are beginning to use Peltier elements.<ref name=Hsu>{{cite web|last=Hsu|first=Jeremy|title=Cold? Put this jacket on. Hot? Put this jacket on Climate-controlled coat goes from zero to 100 degrees C 'in the flip of a button'|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/43400428/ns/technology_and_science-innovation/#.UUQhAnBUOxI|work=NBC News|publisher=NBC|accessdate=16 March 2013|date=2011-06-14}}</ref><ref name=Ferro>{{cite web|last=Ferro|first=Shaunacy|title=How Winter Woes Inspired A Nanotech Fix For Everything From Cold Necks To Knee Pain|url=http://www.popsci.com/technology/article/2013-03/tech-transfer-winter-woes-nanotech-cold-necks-knee-pain|work=Popular Mechanics|publisher=Bonnier Corp.|accessdate=16 March 2013|date=2013-03-15}}</ref> Thermoelectric coolers are used to replace standard heat sinks for microprocessors because they actively cool the module while heat sinks only provide passive cooling.
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| ===Science and imaging===
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| Peltier elements are used in scientific devices. They are a common component in [[thermal cyclers]], used for the synthesis of DNA by polymerase chain reaction ([[PCR]]), a common molecular biological technique which requires the rapid heating and cooling of the reaction mixture for denaturation primer annealing and enzymatic synthesis cycles.
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| The effect is used in [[satellite]]s and [[spacecraft]] to counter the effect of direct [[sunlight]] on one side of a craft by dissipating the heat over the cold shaded side, whereupon the heat is dissipated by [[thermal radiation]] into space.<ref name=gloveboxtemps>{{cite journal|last=Kotlyarov|first=Evgeny|coauthors=Peter de Crom, Raoul Voeten|title=Some Aspects of Peltier-Cooler Optimization Applied for the Glove Box Air Temperature Control.|journal=SAE International|year=2006|page=1}}</ref> Since 1961, some unmanned spacecraft (including the [[Curiosity rover|Curiosity]] Mars rover) utilize radioisotope thermoelectric generators ([[Radioisotope thermoelectric generator|RTGs]]) that convert thermal energy into electrical energy using the Seebeck effect, lasting several decades, fueled by the decay of high energy radioactive materials.
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| Photon detectors such as [[Charge-coupled device|CCD]]s in astronomical [[telescopes]], [[spectrometer]]s, or very high-end [[digital camera]]s are often cooled down with Peltier elements. This reduces dark counts due to [[thermal noise]]. A dark count occurs when a pixel registers an electron because of a thermal fluctuation rather than because it has received a photon. On digital photos taken at low light these occur as speckles (or "pixel noise.")<ref name=sciencetech>{{cite web|title=Low Temperature Cooled Multi-Channel CCD Detector System|url=http://www.sciencetech-inc.com/en/catalog/66/detectors/CCD1008-LOW|publisher=ScienceTech|accessdate=14 October 2013}}</ref>
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| Thermoelectric coolers can be used to [[Computer cooling|cool computer components]] to keep temperatures within design limits, or to maintain stable functioning when [[overclocking]]. A Peltier cooler with a [[heat sink]] or [[waterblock]] can cool a chip to well below ambient temperature.
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| In fiber optic applications, where the wavelength of a laser or a component is highly dependent on temperature, Peltier coolers are used along with a thermistor in a feedback loop to maintain a constant temperature and thereby stabilize the wavelength of the device.
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| Some electronic equipment intended for military use in the field is thermoelectrically cooled.
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| == Identification ==
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| [[File:Peltier IDs explained.svg|350px|thumbnail|Peltier elements all conform to a universal identification specification]] | |
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| The vast majority of TECs have an ID printed on their heated side.<ref name="PCB Heaven"/>
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| These universal IDs clearly indicate the size, number of stages, number of couples, and current rating in amps, as seen in the adjacent diagram.<ref name=blog.owenversteeg.com>{{cite web|last=Versteeg|first=Owen|title=Peltier Element Identification|url=http://blog.owenversteeg.com/post/63988453246/peltier-element-identification|accessdate=14 October 2013}}</ref>
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| == See also ==
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| * [[Thermotunnel cooling]]
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| * [[Thermoacoustics]]
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| == References ==
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| {{Reflist|30em}}
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| ==External links==
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| *{{Dmoz|/Science/Technology/Energy/Devices/Thermoelectrics|Thermoelectrics}}
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| *[http://www.wellentech.com thermoelectric modules]
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| {{DEFAULTSORT:Thermoelectric Cooling}}
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| [[Category:Cooling technology]]
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