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{{Steels}}
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In [[metallurgy]], '''stainless steel''', also known as '''inox steel''' or '''inox''' from French "''inoxydable''", is a [[steel]] [[alloy]] with a minimum of 10.5%<ref>{{cite web | title = The Stainless Steel Family | url = http://www.worldstainless.org/Files/issf/non-image-files/PDF/TheStainlessSteelFamily.pdf | accessdate = 2012-12-08 | postscript =.}}</ref> [[chromium]] content by mass.


Stainless steel does not readily [[corrosion|corrode]], [[rust]] or stain with water as ordinary steel does, but despite the name it is not fully stain-proof, most notably under low-oxygen, high-[[salinity]], or poor-circulation environments.<ref>{{cite web| title = Why is Stainless Steel Stainless?|url = http://www.stainless-steel-blog.com/2013/09/06/why-is-stainless-steel-stainless/|accessdate = 2013-09-06}}</ref>  There are different grades and surface finishes of stainless steel to suit the environment the alloy must endure. Stainless steel is used where both the properties of steel and resistance to corrosion are required.
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Stainless steel differs from carbon steel by the amount of chromium present. Unprotected carbon steel [[rust]]s readily when exposed to air and moisture. This [[iron oxide]] film (the rust) is active and accelerates corrosion by forming more iron oxide, and due to the greater volume of the iron oxide this tends to flake and fall away. Stainless steels contain sufficient [[chromium]] to form a [[Passivation_(chemistry)|passive]] film of chromium oxide, which prevents further surface corrosion by blocking oxygen diffusion to the steel surface and blocks corrosion from spreading into the metal's internal structure, and due to the similar size of the steel and oxide ions they bond very strongly and remain attached to the surface.<ref>[http://www.corrosionclinic.com/corrosion_resources/stainless_steels_why_how_p1.htm Stainless Steels and Alloys: Why They Resist Corrosion and How They Fail"]. Corrosionclinic.com. Retrieved on 2012-06-29.</ref>
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[[Passivation (chemistry)|Passivation]] only occurs if the proportion of chromium is high enough and oxygen is present.
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==History==
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[[Image:Stainless steel nyt 1-31-1915.jpg|right|thumb|An announcement, as it appeared in the 1915 ''New York Times'', of the development of stainless steel<ref name="NYT">{{cite journal|journal=New York Times|title=A non-rusting steel|date=31 January 1915}}</ref>]]


A few corrosion-resistant iron artifacts survive from antiquity. A famous example is the [[Iron Pillar of Delhi]], erected by order of [[Kumara Gupta I]] around AD 400. Unlike stainless steel, however, these artifacts owe their durability not to chromium but to their high [[phosphorus]] content, which, together with favorable local weather conditions, promotes the formation of a solid protective [[Passivation (chemistry)|passivation layer]] of [[iron oxide]]s and [[phosphate]]s, rather than the non-protective cracked [[rust]] layer that develops on most ironwork.
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The corrosion resistance of iron-chromium alloys was first recognized in 1821 by [[France|French]] metallurgist [[Pierre Berthier]], who noted their resistance against attack by some acids and suggested their use in [[cutlery]]. Metallurgists of the 19th century were unable to produce the combination of low carbon and high chromium found in most modern stainless steels, and the high-chromium alloys they could produce were too brittle to be practical.
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In the late 1890s [[Hans Goldschmidt]] of [[Germany]] developed an aluminothermic ([[thermite]]) process for producing carbon-free chromium. Between 1904 and 1911 several researchers, particularly [[Leon Guillet]] of France, prepared alloys that would today be considered stainless steel.
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[[Friedrich Krupp Germaniawerft]] built the 366-ton sailing yacht ''[[Germania_(yacht)|Germania]]'' featuring a chrome-nickel steel hull in Germany in 1908.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dhr.dos.state.fl.us/archaeology/underwater/preserves/HM_Prop3.pdf |title=A Proposal to Establish the Shipwreck Half Moon as a State Underwater Archaeological Preserve |date=May 2000 |publisher=Bureau of Archaeological Research, Division of Historical Resources, Florida Department of State}}</ref> In 1911, [[Philip Monnartz]] reported on the relationship between chromium content and corrosion resistance. On October 17, 1912, [[Krupp]] engineers Benno Strauss and Eduard Maurer patented [[Austenite|austenitic]] stainless steel as [[ThyssenKrupp Nirosta]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nirosta.de/History.22.0.html?&L=1 |title=ThyssenKrupp Nirosta: History |accessdate=2007-08-13}}</ref>
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Similar developments were taking place contemporaneously in the United States, where Christian Dantsizen and Frederick Becket were industrializing [[Ferrite (iron)|ferritic]] stainless steel. In 1912, [[Elwood Haynes]] applied for a US patent on a [[martensite|martensitic]] stainless steel alloy, which was not granted until 1919.<ref>Rodney P. Carlisle, [http://books.google.com/books?id=pDbQVE3IdTcC&pg=PA380 Scientific American Inventions and Discoveries], p. 380, John Wiley and Sons, 2004, ISBN 0-471-24410-4</ref>
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Also in 1912, [[Harry Brearley]] of the [[Firth Brown Steels|Brown-Firth]] research laboratory in [[Sheffield, England]], while seeking a corrosion-resistant alloy for gun barrels, discovered and subsequently industrialized a martensitic stainless steel alloy. The discovery was announced two years later in a January 1915 newspaper article in ''[[The New York Times]]''.<ref name="NYT"/> The metal was later marketed under the 'Staybrite' brand by [[Vickers|Firth Vickers]] in England and was used for the new entrance canopy for the [[Savoy Hotel]] in [[London]] in 1929.<ref>Geoffrey Howse, ''A Photographic History of Sheffield Steel'', History Press, 2011, ISBN 0752459856</ref> Brearley applied for a US patent during 1915 only to find that Haynes had already registered a patent. Brearley and Haynes pooled their funding and with a group of investors formed the American Stainless Steel Corporation, with headquarters in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.<ref>{{cite book |last= Cobb |first= Harold M. |title=The History of Stainless Steel |publisher=ASM International|year=2010 |isbn = 1-61503-010-7 |page = 360}}</ref>  
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In the beginning stainless steel was sold in the US under different brand names like '[[Allegheny Technologies|Allegheny metal]]' and 'Nirosta steel'. Even within the metallurgy industry the eventual name remained unsettled; in 1921 one trade journal was calling it "unstainable steel".<ref>{{cite news|last=Moneypenny|first=J.H.G.|title=Unstainable Steel|url=http://archive.org/details/miningscientific122sanfuoft|accessdate=17 February 2013|newspaper=Mining and Scientific Press|date=April 2, 1921}}</ref> In 1929, before the Great Depression hit, over 25,000 tons of stainless steel were manufactured and sold in the US.<ref>{{cite book|author=Bonnier Corporation |title=Popular Science |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=sygDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA31|year=1930 |publisher=Bonnier Corporation |pages=31– |issn=01617370}}</ref>
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===Oxidation===
 
High oxidation resistance in [[earth's atmosphere|air]] at ambient [[temperature]] is normally achieved with additions of a minimum of 13% (by weight) [[chromium]], and up to 26% is used for harsh environments.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ashby |first=Michael F. |authorlink=M. F. Ashby|coauthors=& David R. H. Jones |title=Engineering Materials 2 |origyear=1986 |edition=with corrections |year=1992 |publisher=Pergamon Press |location=Oxford |isbn=0-08-032532-7 |page=119 |chapter=Chapter 12 }}</ref> The chromium forms a [[Passivation (chemistry)|passivation]] layer of [[chromium(III) oxide]] (Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>) when exposed to [[oxygen]]. The layer is too thin to be visible, and the metal remains lustrous and smooth. The layer is impervious to [[water]] and air, protecting the metal beneath, and this layer quickly reforms when the surface is scratched. This phenomenon is called [[Passivation (chemistry)|passivation]] and is seen in other metals, such as [[aluminium]] and [[titanium]]. Corrosion resistance can be adversely affected if the component is used in a non-oxygenated environment, a typical example being underwater [[keel]] bolts buried in [[timber]].
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When stainless steel parts such as [[nut (hardware)|nut]]s and [[Screw#bolt|bolt]]s are forced together, the oxide layer can be scraped off, allowing the parts to [[welding|weld]] together. When forcibly disassembled, the welded material may be torn and pitted, an effect known as [[galling]]. This destructive galling can be avoided by the use of dissimilar materials for the parts forced together, for example bronze and stainless steel, or even different types of stainless steels (martensitic against austenitic). However, two different alloys electrically connected in a humid environment may act as [[Voltaic pile]] and corrode faster. Nitronic alloys made by selective alloying with manganese and nitrogen may have a reduced tendency to gall. Additionally, threaded joints may be [[lubrication|lubricated]] to prevent galling.
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===Acids===
</ul>
Stainless steel is generally highly resistant to attack from [[acids]], but this quality depends on the kind and concentration of the acid, the surrounding temperature, and the type of steel. Type 304 is resistant to [[sulfuric acid]] at room temperature, even in high concentrations, but type 316 and 317 are only resistant at low concentrations. All types of stainless steel resist attack from [[phosphoric acid]], 316 and 317 more so than 304; and Types 304L and 430 have been successfully used with [[nitric acid]]. [[Hydrochloric acid]] will damage any kind of stainless steel, and should be avoided.<ref name="Davis1994">{{citation|author=Joseph R. Davis|title=Stainless Steels|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=OrlG98AHdoAC&pg=PA118|date=1 January 1994|publisher=ASM International|isbn=978-0-87170-503-7|page=118}}</ref>
 
===Bases===
The 300 series of stainless steel grades is unaffected by any of the weak bases such as [[ammonium hydroxide]], even in high concentrations and at high temperatures.  The same grades of stainless exposed to stronger bases such as [[sodium hydroxide]] at high concentrations and high temperatures will likely experience some etching and cracking, especially with solutions containing [[chloride]]s.<ref name=Davis1994/>
 
===Organics===
Types 316 and 317 are both useful for storing and handling [[acetic acid]], especially in solutions where it is combined with [[formic acid]] and when aeration is not present (oxygen helps protect stainless steel under such conditions), though 317 provides the greatest level of resistance to corrosion.  Type 304 is also commonly used with formic acid though it will tend to discolor the solution. All grades resist damage from [[aldehyde]]s and [[amine]]s, though in the latter case grade 316 is preferable to 304; [[cellulose acetate]] will damage 304 unless the temperature is kept low. Fats and [[fatty acid]]s only affect grade 304 at temperatures above {{convert|150|C|F}}, and grade 316 above {{convert|260|C|F}}, while 317 is unaffected at all temperatures. Type 316L is required for processing of [[urea]].<ref name=Davis1994/>
 
===Electricity and magnetism===
Similarly to steel, stainless steel is a relatively poor conductor of electricity, with a few percent of the [[Resistivity#Resistivity_of_various_materials|electrical conductivity]] of copper.
 
[[Ferrite (iron)|Ferritic]] and [[Martensite|martensitic]] stainless steels are [[Permeability_(electromagnetism)#Values_for_some_common_materials|magnetic]]. [[Austenitic]] stainless steels are [[Permeability_(electromagnetism)#Values_for_some_common_materials|non-magnetic]].
 
==Applications==
{{stack|
[[Image:gateway arch.jpg|upright|thumb|alt=The arch rises from the bottom left of the picture and is shown against a featureless clear sky | The {{convert|630|ft|m|adj=mid|-high}}, stainless-clad (type 304) [[Gateway Arch]] defines [[St. Louis, Missouri|St. Louis's]] skyline]]
[[Image:Chrysler Building detail.jpg|upright|thumb|right|The pinnacle of New York's Chrysler Building is clad with ''Nirosta'' stainless steel, a form of Type 302<ref>http://www.thyssenkrupp-nirosta.de/index.php?id=576</ref><ref name=r1/>]]
[[Image:MohawkNiagraFacadeSculpture.jpg|upright|thumb|right|alt= A stylized figure of a male human with outstretched arms and head tilted slightly forward, wearing a winged and crested helmet, mounted on the facade of a building|An art deco sculpture on the [[Niagara Hudson Building|Niagara-Mohawk Power building]] in [[Syracuse, New York]]]]
}}
 
Stainless steel’s resistance to corrosion and staining, low maintenance and familiar [[Lustre (mineralogy)|lustre]] make it an ideal material for many applications. There are over 150 grades of stainless steel, of which fifteen are most commonly used. The alloy is [[Steel mill|milled]] into coils, sheets, plates, bars, wire, and tubing to be used in [[cookware]], [[cutlery]], [[household hardware]], [[surgical instruments]], [[major appliances]], industrial equipment (for example, in [[sugar refinery|sugar refineries]]) and as an automotive and aerospace structural alloy and construction material in large buildings. Storage tanks and tankers used to transport [[orange juice]] and other food are often made of stainless steel, because of its corrosion resistance. This also influences its use in commercial kitchens and food processing plants, as it can be steam-cleaned and [[Sterilization (microbiology)|sterilized]] and does not need paint or other surface finishes.
 
Stainless steel is used for jewelry and watches with 316L being the type commonly used for such applications. It can be re-finished by any jeweler and will not oxidize or turn black.
 
Some firearms incorporate stainless steel components as an alternative to [[Bluing (steel)|blued]] or [[parkerized]] steel. Some [[handgun]] models, such as the [[Smith & Wesson Model 60]] and the Colt [[M1911 pistol]], can be made entirely from stainless steel. This gives a high-luster finish similar in appearance to nickel plating. Unlike plating, the finish is not subject to flaking, peeling, wear-off from rubbing (as when repeatedly removed from a holster), or rust when scratched.
 
Some [[Automotive industry|automotive manufacturers]] use stainless steel as decorative highlights in their vehicles.
 
===Architecture===
{{main|Architectural steel}}
Stainless steel is used for buildings for both practical and aesthetic reasons. Stainless steel was in vogue during the [[art deco]] period. The most famous example of this is the upper portion of the [[Chrysler Building]] (pictured). Some diners and fast-food restaurants use large ornamental panels and stainless fixtures and furniture. Because of the durability of the material, many of these buildings retain their original appearance.
 
Type 316 stainless is used on the exterior of both the [[Petronas Twin Towers]] and the [[Jin Mao Building]], two of the world's tallest [[skyscraper]]s.<ref name=r1>[http://web.archive.org/web/20060924043735/http://www.nickelinstitute.org/index.cfm/ci_id/11021.htm What is Stainless Steel?] nickelinstitute.org</ref>
 
The [[Parliament House, Canberra|Parliament House of Australia in Canberra]] has a stainless steel flagpole weighing over {{convert|220|t|ST}}.
 
The aeration building in the [[Edmonton Composting Facility]], the size of 14 hockey rinks, is the largest stainless steel building in North America.
 
===Bridges===
* [[Cala Galdana Bridge]] in Minorca (Spain) is the first stainless steel road bridge.
* [[Sant Fruitos Pedestrian Bridge]] (Catalonia, Spain), arch pedestrian bridge.
* [[Padre Arrupe Bridge]] (Bilbao, Spain) links the Guggenheim museum to the University of Deusto.<ref>{{cite web|title=Stainless Steel Bridge in Bilbao|url=http://www.outokumpu.com/en/CustomerIndustries/CaseStudies/Pages/Bilbao-Bridge.aspx/"Stainless steel bridge" |work=Outokumpu}}</ref>
 
===Monuments and sculptures===
* The [[Unisphere]], constructed as the theme symbol of the 1964-5 World's Fair in New York City, is constructed of Type 304L stainless steel as a sphere with a diameter of 120 feet, or 36.57 meters.
* The [[Gateway Arch]] (pictured) is clad entirely in stainless steel: 886 tons (804 metric tonnes) of {{convert|0.25|in|mm|abbr=on}} plate, #3 finish, type 304 stainless steel.<ref>[http://www.nps.gov/jeff/planyourvisit/gateway-arch-fact-sheet.htm Gateway Arch Fact Sheet]. Nps.gov. Retrieved on 2012-06-29.</ref>
* The [[United States Air Force Memorial]] has an austenitic stainless steel structural skin.
* The [[Atomium]] in [[Brussels]], [[Belgium]] was renovated with stainless-steel cladding in a renovation completed in 2006; previously the spheres and tubes of the structure were clad in aluminium.
* The [[Cloud Gate]] sculpture by [[Anish Kapoor]], in Chicago US.
* The [[Sibelius monument]] in Helsinki, Finland, is made entirely of stainless steel tubes.
 
===Other===
; Automotive bodies
The [[Allegheny Technologies|Allegheny Ludlum Corporation]] worked with [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] on various [[concept car]]s with stainless steel bodies from the 1930s through the 1970s, as demonstrations of the material's potential. The 1957 and 1958 [[Cadillac]] Eldorado Brougham had a stainless steel roof. In 1981 and 1982, the [[DeLorean DMC-12]] production automobile used stainless steel body panels over a [[glass-reinforced plastic]] [[monocoque]]. Intercity buses made by [[Motor Coach Industries]] are partially made of stainless steel.
; Passenger rail cars
Rail cars have commonly been manufactured using corrugated stainless steel panels (for additional structural strength). This was particularly popular during the 1960s and 1970s, but has since declined. One notable example was the early [[Pioneer Zephyr]]. Notable former manufacturers of stainless steel rolling stock included the [[Budd Company]] (USA), which has been licensed to Japan's [[Tokyu Car Corporation]], and the Portuguese company [[Sorefame]]. Many railcars in the United States are still manufactured with stainless steel, unlike other countries who have shifted away.
; Aircraft
Budd also built an airplane, the [[Budd BB-1 Pioneer]], of stainless steel tube and sheet, which is on display at the [[Franklin Institute]].
 
The American [[Fleetwings Sea Bird]] [[amphibious aircraft]] of 1936 was also built using a spot-welded stainless steel hull.
 
The Bristol Aeroplane Company built the all-stainless steel [[Bristol 188]] high-speed research aircraft, which first flew in 1963.
 
==Recycling and reuse==
Stainless steel is 100% [[recyclable]]. An average stainless steel object is composed of about 60% recycled material of which approximately 40% originates from end-of-life products and about 60% comes from manufacturing processes.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.worldstainless.org/ISSF/Files/Recycling08/Flash.html
| title = The Recycling of Stainless Steel ("Recycled Content" and "Input Composition" slides)
| accessdate = 2006-11-19| year = 2006| format = Flash| publisher = International Stainless Steel Forum
}}</ref> According to the [[International Resource Panel]]'s [[Metal Stocks in Society report]], the per capita stock of stainless steel in use in society is 80–180&nbsp;kg in more developed countries and 15&nbsp;kg in less-developed countries.
 
There is a secondary market that recycles usable scrap for many stainless steel markets. The product is mostly coil, sheet and blanks. This material is purchased at a less-than-prime price and sold to commercial quality stampers and sheet metal houses. The material may have scratches, pits and dents but is made to the current specifications.
 
==Types of stainless steel==<!-- target from [[drug-eluting stent#design]] -->
{{main|SAE steel grades}}
[[Image:Piping01.JPG|thumb|alt=Several heavy pieces of bent pipe with flange connections, strapped down to a wooden pallet|[[Pipe (material)|Pipes]] and [[Piping and plumbing fittings|fittings]] made of stainless steel]]
 
There are different types of stainless steels: when [[nickel]] is added, for instance, the austenite structure of iron is stabilized. This crystal structure makes such steels virtually non-[[magnetic]] and less [[brittle]] at low temperatures. For greater [[Hardness (materials science)|hardness]] and strength, more [[carbon]] is added. With proper [[heat treatment]], these steels are used for such products as [[razor blade steel|razor blade]]s, cutlery, and tools.
 
Significant quantities of [[manganese]] have been used in many stainless steel compositions. Manganese preserves an austenitic structure in the steel, similar to nickel, but at a lower [[cost]].
 
Stainless steels are also classified by their [[crystalline structure]]:
*''[[Austenite|Austenitic]]'', or 200 and 300 series, stainless steels have an austenitic crystalline structure, which is a [[face-centered cubic]] crystal structure. Austenite steels make up over 70% of total stainless steel production. They contain a maximum of 0.15% carbon, a minimum of 16% chromium and sufficient nickel and/or manganese to retain an austenitic structure at all temperatures from the [[cryogenic]] region to the melting point of the alloy.
 
:*200 Series—austenitic chromium-nickel-manganese alloys. Type 201 is hardenable through cold working; Type 202 is a general purpose stainless steel.  Decreasing nickel content and increasing manganese results in weak corrosion resistance.<ref>http://www.manganese.org/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/81061/07-_Stainless_Steel_200_Series_An_Opportunity_for_Mn_-_Y_Habara_Nippon_Metal_Industry_Co.pdf</ref>
 
:*300 Series—The most widely used austenite steel is the [[SAE 304 stainless steel|304]], also known as ''18/8'' for its composition of 18% chromium and 8% nickel.<ref>http://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=965</ref>  304 may be referred to as A2 stainless (not to be confused with A2 grade steel, also named [[Tool steel]], a steel). The second most common austenite steel is the [[Marine grade stainless|316]] grade, also called marine grade stainless, used primarily for its increased resistance to corrosion. A typical composition of 18% chromium and 10% nickel, commonly known as ''18/10 stainless'', is often used in [[cutlery]] and high-quality [[cookware]]. ''18/0'' is also available.
:''Superaustenitic'' stainless steels, such as alloy [[AL-6XN]] and 254SMO, exhibit great resistance to chloride pitting and crevice corrosion because of high [[molybdenum]] content (>6%) and nitrogen additions, and the higher nickel content ensures better resistance to stress-corrosion cracking versus the 300 series. The higher alloy content of superaustenitic steels makes them more expensive. Other steels can offer similar performance at lower cost and are preferred in certain applications, for example ASTM A387 is used in pressure vessels but is a low-alloy carbon steel with a chromium content of 0.5% to 9%.<ref>ASTM A 387/ A387M – 06a Standard Specification for Pressure Vessel Plates, Alloy Steel, Chromium-Molybdenum</ref> Low-carbon versions, for example [[Marine grade stainless|316]]L or 304L, are used to avoid corrosion problems caused by welding. Grade 316LVM is preferred where [[biocompatibility]] is required (such as body implants and piercings).<ref>[http://www.makeitfrom.com/data/?material=316_Stainless_Steel Material Properties Data: Marine Grade Stainless Steel]. Makeitfrom.com. Retrieved on 2012-06-29.</ref> The "L" means that the carbon content of the alloy is below 0.03%, which reduces the [[sensitization effect]] (precipitation of [[chromium carbide]]s at grain boundaries) caused by the high temperatures involved in welding.
 
*''[[Ferrite (iron)|Ferritic]]'' stainless steels generally have better engineering properties than austenitic grades, but have reduced corrosion resistance, because of the lower chromium and nickel content. They are also usually less expensive. They contain between 10.5% and 27% chromium and very little nickel, if any, but some types can contain lead. Most compositions include molybdenum; some, aluminium or titanium. Common ferritic grades include 18Cr-2Mo, 26Cr-1Mo, 29Cr-4Mo, and 29Cr-4Mo-2Ni. These alloys can be degraded by the presence of <math>\sigma</math> chromium, an intermetallic phase which can precipitate upon welding.
 
[[File:Soldatenmesser 08-2.JPG|thumb|[[Swiss Army knife#Soldier Knife 08|Swiss Army knives]] are made of [[Swiss_Army_knife#Applied_materials|martensitic stainless steel]].]]
 
*''[[Martensitic stainless steel|Martensitic]]'' stainless steels are not as corrosion-resistant as the other two classes but are extremely strong and tough, as well as highly [[machinability|machinable]], and can be hardened by heat treatment. Martensitic stainless steel contains chromium (12–14%), molybdenum (0.2–1%), nickel (less than 2%), and carbon (about 0.1–1%) (giving it more hardness but making the material a bit more brittle). It is quenched and magnetic.
 
*''Precipitation-hardening martensitic'' stainless steels have corrosion resistance comparable to austenitic varieties, but can be [[Precipitation hardening|precipitation hardened]] to even higher strengths than the other martensitic grades. The most common, [[17-4PH]], uses about 17% chromium and 4% nickel.
 
*''Duplex''{{Anchor|duplex steel}} stainless steels have a mixed microstructure of austenite and ferrite, the aim usually being to produce a 50/50 mix, although in commercial alloys the ratio may be 40/60. Duplex stainless steels have roughly twice the strength compared to austenitic stainless steels and also improved resistance to localized corrosion, particularly [[pitting]], crevice corrosion and stress corrosion cracking. They are characterized by high chromium (19–32%) and molybdenum (up to 5%) and lower nickel contents than austenitic stainless steels.
 
:The properties of duplex stainless steels are achieved with an overall lower alloy content than similar-performing super-austenitic grades, making their use cost-effective for many applications. Duplex grades are characterized into groups based on their alloy content and corrosion resistance.
:*''Lean duplex'' refers to grades such as [[Unified numbering system|UNS]] S32101 (LDX 2101), S32304, and S32003.
:*''Standard duplex'' is 22% chromium with UNS S31803/S32205 known as 2205 being the most widely used.
:*''Super duplex'' is by definition a duplex stainless steel with a [[Pitting Resistance Equivalent Number]] (PREN) > 40, where PREN = %Cr + 3.3x(%Mo + 0.5x%W) + 16x%N. Usually super duplex grades have 25% chromium or more and some common examples are S32760 ([[Zeron 100]] via [[Rolled Alloys]]), S32750 (2507) and S32550 (Ferralium),.
:*''Hyper duplex'' refers to duplex grades with a PRE > 48 and at the moment only UNS S32707 and S33207 are available on the market.
 
===Comparison of standardized steels===
{|class="wikitable sortable"
! EN-standard
Steel no. k.h.s
DIN
! EN-standard
Steel name
! [[SAE steel grades|SAE grade]]
! [[Unified numbering system|UNS]]
|-
| || ||440A || S44002
|-
| 1.4112 || X90CrMoV18 ||440B || S44003
|-
| 1.4125 || X105CrMo17 ||440C || S44004
|-
| || ||440F || S44020
|-
| 1.4016 || X6Cr17 ||430 || S43000
|-
| 1.4408 || G-X 6 CrNiMo 18-10 ||316 ||
|-
| 1.4512 || X6CrTi12 ||409 || S40900
|-
| || ||410 || S41000
|-
| 1.4310 || X10CrNi18-8 ||301 || S30100
|-
| 1.4318 || X2CrNiN18-7 || 301LN ||
|-
| 1.4307 || X2CrNi18-9 ||304L || S30403
|-
|1.4306 || X2CrNi19-11 ||304L || S30403
|-
|1.4311 || X2CrNiN18-10 ||304LN || S30453
|-
|1.4301 || X5CrNi18-10 ||304 || S30400
|-
| 1.4948 || X6CrNi18-11 ||304H || S30409
|-
|1.4303 || X5CrNi18-12 ||305 || S30500
|-
| || X5CrNi30-9 ||312 ||
|-
| 1.4541 || X6CrNiTi18-10 ||321 || S32100
|-
| 1.4878 || X12CrNiTi18-9 ||321H || S32109
|-
| 1.4404 || X2CrNiMo17-12-2 ||316L || S31603
|-
| 1.4401 || X5CrNiMo17-12-2 ||316 || S31600
|-
| 1.4406 || X2CrNiMoN17-12-2 ||316LN || S31653
|-
| 1.4432 || X2CrNiMo17-12-3 ||316L || S31603
|-
| 1.4435 || X2CrNiMo18-14-3 ||316L || S31603
|-
| 1.4436 || X3CrNiMo17-13-3 ||316 || S31600
|-
| 1.4571 || X6CrNiMoTi17-12-2 ||316Ti || S31635
|-
|1.4429 || X2CrNiMoN17-13-3 ||316LN || S31653
|-
|1.4438 || X2CrNiMo18-15-4 ||317L || S31703
|-
|1.4362 || X2CrNi23-4 ||2304 || S32304
|-
|1.4462 || X2CrNiMoN22-5-3 ||2205 || S31803/S32205
|-
| 1.4539 || X1NiCrMoCu25-20-5 ||904L || N08904
|-
| 1.4529 || X1NiCrMoCuN25-20-7 ||  || N08926
|-
| 1.4547 || X1CrNiMoCuN20-18-7 || 254SMO || S31254
|}
More Stainless Steel Datasheets are listed at the following reference.<ref>{{cite web | title = Stainless Steel Grades Datasheets | url = http://www.bssa.org.uk/topics.php?article=606&featured=1}}</ref>
 
===Stainless steel grades===
There are a number of different systems for [[steel grades|grading stainless and other steels]]. The article on US [[SAE steel grades]] details a large number of grades with their properties.
 
===Stainless steel in 3D printing===
Some [[3D printing]] providers have developed proprietary stainless steel [[sintering]]<ref>[http://www.shapeways.com/materials/stainless_steel Stainless Steel]. Shapeways. Retrieved on 2012-06-29.</ref> blends for use in rapid prototyping. Currently available grades do not vary significantly in their properties.<ref>[http://www.makeitfrom.com/data/?material=3D_Printing_Steel Material Properties Data: 3D Printing Steel]. Makeitfrom.com. Retrieved on 2012-06-29.</ref>
 
==Stainless steel finishes==
{{Main|Brushed metal}}
[[Image:316L Stainless Steel Unpolished.jpg|upright|thumb|right|alt=Matte surface of pipe, with a few horizontal scratches|316L stainless steel, with an unpolished, mill finish]]
 
Standard [[surface finishing|mill finishes]] can be applied to flat rolled stainless steel directly by the rollers and by mechanical abrasives. Steel is first rolled to size and thickness and then [[Annealing (metallurgy)|annealed]] to change the properties of the final material. Any [[oxidation]] that forms on the surface ([[mill scale]]) is removed by [[Pickling (metal)|pickling]], and a passivation layer is created on the surface. A final finish can then be applied to achieve the desired aesthetic appearance.
* No. 0: Hot rolled, annealed, thicker plates
* No. 1: Hot rolled, annealed and passivated
* No. 2D: Cold rolled, annealed, pickled and passivated
* No. 2B: Same as above with additional pass-through highly polished rollers
* No. 2BA: Bright annealed (BA or 2R) same as above then bright annealed under oxygen-free atmospheric condition
* No. 3: Coarse abrasive finish applied mechanically
* No. 4: Brushed finish
* No. 5: Satin finish
* No. 6: Matte finish (brushed but smoother than #4)
* No. 7: Reflective finish
* No. 8: Mirror finish
* No. 9: Bead blast finish
* No. 10: Heat colored finish-wide range of [[Electropolishing|electropolished]] and heat colored surfaces
 
==See also==
{{multi-col}}
* [[Argon oxygen decarburization]]
* [[List of blade materials]]
* [[Panel edge staining]]
*[[Pitting Resistance Equivalent Number]]
* [[Stainless steel fiber]]
{{multicol-break}}
* [[Marine grade stainless]]
* [[Rouging]]
* [[Stainless steel soap]]
{{multicol-end}}
 
==References==
{{Reflist|35em}}
 
==External links==
{{External links|date=March 2012}}
{{Commons category}}
{{Wiktionary}}
*[http://www.outokumpu.com/files/Common/Animation/EN_Sustainability/ Animated presentation outlining the manufacture process] by industry leaders [http://www.outokumpu.com/ Outokumpu]
*[http://www.specialtysteelsupply.com/glossary.php Glossary of Stainless Steel Related Terms] by Specialty Steel Supply
*[http://www.corrosionist.com/Materials_Stainless_Steel_Intro.htm Stainless Steel Properties and Corrosion Resistance]
*[http://www.ssina.com/overview/history.html Comprehensive Information About Stainless Steel] by The Stainless Steel Information Center
*[http://www.bssa.org.uk/topics.php Technical Library on Stainless Steel] by BSSA
*[http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-trans/2005/Stainless_steels/stainless.html Comprehensive Information About Metallurgy of Stainless Steel] by Cambridge University
*[http://www.yacht-steel.com/aisi-en-uns-convert.php?language=en Converter for Stainless Steel Standards]
*[http://www.hghouston.com/Resources/MaterialPropertyData/StainlessSteelData/StainlessSteelCompositions.aspx Stainless Steel Composition]
*[http://www.westyorkssteel.com/stainless_steel_specifications.html Comparison of foreign standards in stainless steel specifications]
*[http://www.stainlessconstruction.com/ Online Information Centre for Stainless Steel in Construction] by the [http://www.steel-sci.org/ SCI.org of the UK]
 
 
{{Metalworking navbox|cast|form|mach|tool|weld}}
{{Jewellery}}
 
{{DEFAULTSORT:Stainless Steel}}
[[Category:Building materials]]
[[Category:Chromium alloys]]
[[Category:English inventions]]
[[Category:1916 introductions]]
[[Category:Steels]]

Revision as of 14:07, 4 March 2014

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To keep up with the fast pace of technological development, the Senate Commerce, Science and Transportation Committee holds a hearing tomorrow on the potential risks and safety benefits of autonomous and wirelessly connected vehicles. Today, Transportation Secretary Ray LaHood will also take up the issue at a threeday global symposium on connected vehicles hosted by the Transportation Research Institute.

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