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| {{Other uses}}
| | Emilia Shryock is my name but you can contact me anything you like. What I adore performing is performing ceramics but I haven't made a dime with it. Bookkeeping is my occupation. South Dakota is exactly where I've always been living.<br><br>my web blog [http://www.escuelavirtual.registraduria.gov.co/user/view.php?id=140944&course=1 http://www.escuelavirtual.registraduria.gov.co/] |
| [[File:Piraeus map 1908.jpg|thumb|300px|1908 Map of [[Piraeus]], the port of [[Athens]], showing the grid plan of the city]]
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| [[File:Fra Carnevale - The Ideal City - Walters 37677.jpg|thumb|600px|"The Ideal City" of the [[Renaissance]] by [[Fra Carnevale]]. Oil and tempera painting (c1480). Panel in the [[Walters Art Museum]]]]
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| A '''city''' is a relatively large and permanent [[human settlement]].<ref name="Goodall">Goodall, B. (1987) ''The Penguin Dictionary of Human Geography. London: Penguin.</ref><ref name="Kuper and Kuper">Kuper, A. and Kuper, J., eds (1996) ''The Social Science Encyclopedia''. 2nd edition. London: Routledge.</ref> Although there is no agreement on how a city is distinguished from a town within general English language meanings, many cities have a particular [[Public administration|administrative]], legal, or historical status based on local law.
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| Cities generally have complex systems for [[sanitation]], utilities, land usage, [[house|housing]], and transportation. The concentration of development greatly facilitates interaction between people and businesses, benefiting both parties in the process. A big city or metropolis usually has associated suburbs and [[commuter town|exurb]]s. Such cities are usually associated with [[metropolitan area]]s and urban areas, creating numerous business [[commuter]]s traveling to urban centers for employment. Once a city expands far enough to reach another city, this region can be deemed a [[conurbation]] or [[Megalopolis (city type)|megalopolis]].
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| ==Origins==
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| There is not enough evidence to assert what conditions gave rise to the first cities. Some theorists, however, have speculated on what they consider suitable pre-conditions, and basic mechanisms that might have been important driving forces.
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| The conventional view holds that cities first formed after the [[Neolithic revolution]]. The Neolithic revolution brought agriculture, which made denser human populations possible, thereby supporting city development.<ref>{{Harv |Bairoch|1988| pp=3–4}}</ref> The advent of farming encouraged hunter-gatherers to abandon nomadic lifestyles and to settle near others who lived by agricultural production. The increased population-density encouraged by farming and the increased output of food per unit of land created conditions that seem more suitable for city-like activities. In his book, ''Cities and Economic Development'', [[Paul Bairoch]] takes up this position in his argument that agricultural activity appears necessary before true cities can form.
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| According to [[Vere Gordon Childe]], for a settlement to qualify as a city, it must have enough surplus of raw materials to support trade and a relatively large population.<ref>{{Harv |Pacione|2001| p=16}}</ref> Bairoch points out that, due to sparse population densities that would have persisted in pre-Neolithic, hunter-gatherer societies, the amount of land that would be required to produce enough food for subsistence and trade for a large population would make it impossible to control the flow of trade. To illustrate this point, Bairoch offers an example: "Western Europe during the pre-Neolithic, [where] the density must have been less than 0.1 person per square kilometer".<ref name="Bairoch 1988 13">{{Harv |Bairoch|1988| p=13}}</ref> Using this population density as a base for calculation, and allotting 10% of food towards surplus for trade and assuming that city dwellers do no farming, he calculates that "...to maintain a city with a population of 1,000, and without taking the cost of transportation into account, an area of 100,000 square kilometers would have been required. When the cost of transportation is taken into account, the figure rises to 200,000 square kilometers ...".<ref name="Bairoch 1988 13"/> Bairoch noted that this is roughly the size of Great Britain.
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| The urban theorist [[Jane Jacobs]] suggests that city-formation preceded the birth of agriculture, but this view is not widely accepted.<ref name="Jacobs 1969 23">{{Harv |Jacobs|1969| p=23}}</ref>
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| In his book ''City Economics'', Brendan O'Flaherty asserts "Cities could persist—as they have for thousands of years—only if their advantages offset the disadvantages" {{Harv |O'Flaherty|2005| p=12}}. O'Flaherty illustrates two similar attracting advantages known as [[increasing returns to scale]] and [[economies of scale]], which are concepts normally associated with [[firm]]s. Their applications are seen in more basic economic systems as well. Increasing returns to scale occurs when "doubling all inputs more than doubles the output [and] an activity has economies of scale if doubling output less than doubles cost" {{Harv |O'Flaherty|2005| pp=572–573}}. To offer an example of these concepts, O'Flaherty makes use of "one of the oldest reasons why cities were built: military protection" {{Harv |O'Flaherty|2005| p=13}}. In this example, the inputs are anything that would be used for protection (e.g., a wall) and the output is the area protected and everything of value contained in it. O'Flaherty then asks that we suppose the protected area is square, and each hectare inside it has the same value of protection. The advantage is expressed as: {{Harv |O'Flaherty|2005| p=13}}
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| :(1) '''<math>O = s^2</math>''', where O is the output (area protected) and s stands for the length of a side. This equation shows that output is proportional to the square of the length of a side.
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| The inputs depend on the length of the perimeter:
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| :(2) '''<math>I = 4s</math>''', where I stands for the quantity of inputs. This equation shows that the perimeter is proportional to the length of a side.
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| So there are increasing returns to scale:
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| :(3) '''<math>O = I^2/16</math>'''. This equation (solving for '''<math>s</math>''' in (1) and substituting in (2)) shows that with twice the inputs, you produce quadruple the output.
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| Also, economies of scale:
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| :(4) '''<math>I = 4O^{1/2}</math>'''. This equation (solving for '''<math>I</math>''' in equation (3)) shows that the same output requires less input.
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| "Cities, then, economize on protection, and so protection against marauding barbarian armies is one reason why people have come together to live in cities ..." {{Harv |O'Flaherty|2005| p=13}}.
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| Similarly, "Are Cities Dying?", a paper by Harvard economist [[Edward Glaeser|Edward L. Glaeser]], delves into similar reasons for city formation: reduced transport costs for goods, people, and ideas. Discussing the benefits of proximity, Glaeser claims that if you double a city size, workers have a ten-percent increase in earnings. Glaeser furthers his argument by stating that bigger cities do not pay more for equal productivity than in a smaller city, so it is reasonable to assume that workers become more productive if they move to a city twice the size as they initially worked in. However, the workers do not benefit much from the ten-percent wage increase, because it is recycled back into the higher cost of living in a bigger city. They do gain other benefits from living in cities, though.
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| [[File:Multan map.jpg|thumbnail|left|A map dating 1669 showing the location of [[Multan]], [[Pakistan]]]]
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| ==Geography==
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| [[File:Haarlem-City-Map-1550.jpg|thumb|Map of [[Haarlem]], the Netherlands, of around 1550 showing the city completely surrounded by a city wall and defensive canal, with its square shape inspired by Jerusalem]]
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| City planning has seen many different schemes for how a city should look. The most commonly seen pattern is the [[grid plan|grid]], used for thousands of years in China, independently invented by [[Alexander the Great]]'s city planner [[Dinocrates of Rhodes]] and favoured by the Romans, while almost a rule in parts of [[pre-Columbian America]]. [[Derry]], begun in 1613, was the first [[planned city]] in Ireland, with the walls being completed five years later. The central diamond within a walled city with four gates was considered a good design for defence. The grid pattern was widely copied in the colonies of British North America.
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| The Ancient Greeks often gave their colonies around the Mediterranean a grid plan. One of the best examples is the city of [[Priene]]. This city had different specialized districts, much as is seen in modern city planning today. Fifteen centuries earlier, the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] was using grids in such cities as [[Mohenjo-Daro]]. In medieval times there was evidence of a preference for [[linear planning]]. Good examples are the cities established by various rulers in the south of France and city expansions in old Dutch and Flemish cities.
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| Grid plans were popular among planners in the 19th century, particularly after the redesign of Paris. They cut through the meandering, organic streets that followed old paths. The United States imposed grid plans in new territories and towns, as the [[American West]] was rapidly established, in places such as [[Salt Lake City]] and San Francisco.
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| Other forms may include a radial structure, in which main roads converge on a central point. This was often a historic form, the effect of successive growth over long time with concentric traces of [[town wall]]s and [[citadel]]s. In more recent history, such forms were supplemented by ring-roads that take traffic around the outskirts of a town. Many Dutch cities are structured this way: a central square surrounded by concentric canals. Every city expansion would imply a new circle (canals together with town walls). In cities such as [[Amsterdam]], [[Haarlem]], and also Moscow, this pattern is still clearly visible.
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| ==History==
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| {{Further|Historical cities|List of largest cities throughout history}}
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| [[File:Baghdad 150 to 300 AH.gif|thumb|The [[Round city of Baghdad]], the capital of Iraq]]
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| [[File:IVC Map.png|thumb|right|Extent and major sites of the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] of ancient India]]
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| Towns and cities have a long history, although opinions vary on whether any particular [[Ancient history|ancient]] settlement can be considered a city. A city formed as central places of trade for the benefit of the members living in close proximity to others facilitates interaction of all kinds. These interactions generate both positive and negative externalities between others' actions. Benefits include reduced transport costs, exchange of ideas, sharing of natural resources, large local markets, and later in their development, amenities such as [[running water]] and [[sewage]] disposal. Possible costs would include higher rate of crime, higher mortality rates, higher cost of living, worse pollution, traffic and high commuting times. Cities grow when the benefits of proximity between people and firms are higher than the cost.
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| The first true towns are sometimes considered large settlements where the inhabitants were no longer simply farmers of the surrounding area, but began to take on specialized occupations, and where trade, food storage and power were centralized. In 1950 [[Gordon Childe]] attempted to define a historic city with 10 general metrics.<ref>{{Cite journal
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| | volume = 21
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| | issue = 1
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| | pages = 3–19
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| | last = Childe
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| | first = V. Gordon
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| | title = The Urban Revolution
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| | doi = 10.1068/d5307| journal = Town Planning Review
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| | year = 2008
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| | ref = harv
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| }}</ref> These are:
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| # Size and density of the population should be above normal.
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| # Differentiation of the population. Not all residents grow their own food, leading to specialists.
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| # Payment of taxes to a deity or king.
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| # Monumental public buildings.
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| # Those not producing their own food are supported by the king.
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| # Systems of recording and practical science.
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| # A system of writing.
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| # Development of symbolic art.
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| # Trade and import of raw materials.
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| # Specialist craftsmen from outside the kin-group.
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| This categorisation is descriptive, and it is used as a general touchstone when considering ancient cities, although not all have each of its characteristics.
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| One characteristic that can be used to distinguish a small city from a large town is organized government. A town accomplishes common goals through informal agreements between neighbors or the leadership of a chief. A city has professional administrators, regulations, and some form of taxation (food and other necessities or means to trade for them) to feed the government workers. The governments may be based on heredity, religion, military power, work projects (such as canal building), food distribution, land ownership, agriculture, commerce, manufacturing, finance, or a combination of those. Societies that live in cities are often called [[civilization]]s.
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| [[File:Mohenjo-daro.jpg|thumbnail|left|[[Mohenjo-daro]], a [[World Heritage site]] that was part of the [[Indus Valley Civilization]]]]
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| ===Ancient times===
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| {{Further|Cities of the Ancient Near East|Polis|City-state}}
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| [[File:Ur-Nassiriyah.jpg|thumb|right|Ancient [[Ur]] of [[Sumer]] in present day Tell el-Mukayyar in [[Iraq]], one of the world's earliest сities]]
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| [[File:AncientAgoraofAthensColour.jpg|right|thumb||220px|View of the [[Agora of Athens]] with the [[Temple of Hephaestus|temple]] [[Hephaestus|of Hephaestus]] to the left and the [[Stoa of Attalos]] to the right]]
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| [[File:RomemodelEUR3.jpg|thumb|Scale model of ancient Rome, 3rd century AD]]
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| [[File:Zocalo temple mayor metro.jpg|thumb|right|A model of native American pyramids in the [[Zócalo]] in the center of Mexico City]]
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| [[File:Along the River During the Qingming Festival (detail of original).jpg|thumb|Daily life of people from the Song period at the capital, Bianjing, today's [[Kaifeng]]]]
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| [[File:Bizansist touchup.jpg|thumb|right|220px|[[Constantinople]], the largest and wealthiest city in Europe from the 9th through the 12th century]]
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| Early cities developed in a number of regions of the ancient world. [[Mesopotamia]] can claim the earliest cities, [[Eridu]], [[Uruk]], and [[Ur]].{{citation needed|date=June 2011}} After Mesopotamia, this culture arose in Syria and Anatolia, as shown by the city of [[Çatalhöyük]] (7500–5700BC). It is the largest Neolithic site found to date.{{citation needed|date=June 2011}} Although it has sometimes been claimed{{citation needed|date=June 2011}} that ancient [[Egypt]] lacked urbanism, several types of urban settlements were found in ancient times.
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| The Indus Valley Civilization and ancient China are two other areas with major indigenous urban traditions. Among the early Old World cities, [[Mohenjo-daro]] of the Indus Valley Civilization in present-day [[Pakistan]], existing from about 2600 BC, was one of the largest, with a population of 50,000 or more.<ref>Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1998) ''Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization''. [[Oxford University Press]], Karachi and New York.</ref>
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| In ancient Greece, beginning in the early 1st millennium BC, there emerged independent [[city-states]] that evolved for the first time the notion of [[citizenship]], becoming in the process the archetype of the [[free city (antiquity)|free city]], the [[polis]].<ref name=tws2Y21>{{Cite book | last = Pocock | first = J. G. A. | title = The Citizenship Debates | publisher = The University of Minnesota | series = Chapter 2 -- The Ideal of Citizenship since Classical Times (originally published in ''Queen's Quarterly'' 99, no. 1) | year = 1998 | location = Minneapolis, MN | page = 31 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=i6U7CTuCJLYC&pg=PA31&dq=%28%22John+Pocock%22+OR+%22J.G.A.+Pocock%22%29+%22citizenship%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=0VglT9m1CaW70QGruOnXCA&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%28%22John%20Pocock%22%20OR%20%22J.G.A.%20Pocock%22%29%20%22citizenship%22&f=false | isbn = 0-8166-2880-7}}</ref> The [[Agora]], meaning "gathering place" or "assembly", was the center of athletic, artistic, spiritual and political life of the polis.<ref name=InternationalDictionary>{{cite book |title = International Dictionary of Historic Places: Southern Europe | last=Ring, Salkin, Boda | first=Trudy, Robert, Sharon | publisher = Routledge|date = January 1, 1996 | page = 66 | isbn=978-1-884964-02-2}}</ref> These Greek city-states reached great levels of prosperity that resulted in an unprecedented cultural boom, that of [[classical Greece]], expressed in architecture, drama, science, mathematics and philosophy, and nurtured in [[Athens]] under a [[democracy|democratic government]]. The Greek [[Hippodamus of Miletus]] (c. 407 BC) has been dubbed the "Father of City Planning" for his design of [[Miletus]]; the Hippodamian, or grid plan, was the basis for subsequent Greek and Roman cities.<ref name="crabgrass">{{cite crabgrass}}, p.73-76</ref> In the 4th century BC, [[Alexander the Great]] commissioned [[Dinocrates of Rhodes]] to lay out his new city of [[Alexandria]], the grandest example of idealized urban planning of the ancient Mediterranean world, where the city's regularity was facilitated by its level site near a mouth of the Nile.
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| This roster of early urban traditions is notable for its diversity. Excavations at early urban sites show that some cities were sparsely populated political capitals, others were trade centers, and still other cities had a primarily religious focus. Some cities had large dense populations, whereas others carried out urban activities in the realms of politics or religion without having large associated populations. Theories that attempt to explain ancient urbanism by a single factor, such as economic benefit, fail to capture the range of variation documented by archaeologists.<ref>Smith 2002</ref>
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| The growth of the population of ancient civilizations, the formation of ancient empires concentrating political power, and the growth in commerce and manufacturing led to ever greater capital cities and centres of commerce and industry, with [[Alexandria]], [[Antioch]] and [[Seleucia on the Tigris|Seleucia]] of the [[Hellenistic civilization]], [[Pataliputra]] (now [[Patna]]) in India, [[Chang'an]] (now [[Xi'an]]) in China, [[Carthage]], ancient Rome, its eastern successor Constantinople (later [[Istanbul]]).
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| Keith Hopkins estimates that ancient Rome had a population of about a million people by the end of the 1st century BC,<ref>Luc-Normand Tellier (2009). "''[http://books.google.com/books?id=cXuCjDbxC1YC&pg=PA185&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false Urban world history: an economic and geographical perspective]''". PUQ. p.185. ISBN 2-7605-1588-5</ref> after growing continually during the 3rd, 2nd, and 1st centuries BC, making it the largest city in the world at the time.<ref name=cities>On The Political Economy of the Roman Empire, Keith Hopkins</ref> Alexandria's population was also close to Rome's population at around the same time, the historian Rostovtzeff estimates a total population close to a million based on a census dated from 32 AD that counted 180,000 adult male citizens in Alexandria.<ref>Rostovtzeff 1941: 1138–39</ref>
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| [[Late Antiquity#Cities|Cities of Late Antiquity]] underwent transformations as the urban power base shrank and was transferred to the local bishop (see [[Late Roman Empire]]). Cities essentially disappeared, earliest in [[Roman Britain]] and [[Germania]] and latest in the [[Eastern Roman Empire]] and [[Visigothic Spain]].{{citation needed|reason=for the entire paragraph |date=June 2011}}
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| In the ancient Americas, early urban traditions developed in the [[Andes]] and [[Mesoamerica]]. In the Andes, the first urban centers developed in the [[Norte Chico civilization]] (also [[Caral]] or Caral-Supe civilization), [[Chavín culture|Chavin]] and [[Moche (culture)|Moche]] cultures, followed by major cities in the [[Huari culture|Huari]], [[Chimu]] and [[Inca]] cultures. The Norte Chico civilization included as many as 30 major population centers in what is now the [[Norte Chico (Peruvian region)|Norte Chico region]] of north-central coastal [[Peru]]. It is the oldest known civilization in the Americas, flourishing between the 30th century BC and the 18th century BC.<ref name=Shady1997>{{cite book |last= Shady Solís |first=Ruth Martha |authorlink=Ruth Shady |title= La ciudad sagrada de Caral-Supe en los albores de la civilización en el Perú | url=http://sisbib.unmsm.edu.pe/Bibvirtual/Libros/Arqueologia/ciudad_sagrada/caratula.htm |accessdate=2007-03-03 |year=1997 |publisher=UNMSM, Fondo Editorial |location=Lima}} {{es icon}}</ref> Mesoamerica saw the rise of early urbanism in several cultural regions, including the [[Maya city|Preclassic Maya]], the [[Zapotec civilization|Zapotec]] of Oaxaca, and [[Teotihuacan]] in central Mexico. Later cultures such as the [[Aztec]] drew on these earlier urban traditions.
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| In the first millennium AD, an urban tradition developed in the Khmer region of Cambodia, where Angkor grew into one of the largest cities (in area) of the world.<ref name="Evans PNAS">Evans ''et al'', [http://www.pnas.org/content/104/36/14277 A comprehensive archaeological map of the world's largest preindustrial settlement complex at Angkor, Cambodia], Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, August 23, 2007.</ref> The closest rival to Angkor, the Mayan city of [[Tikal]] in Guatemala, was between {{convert|100|and|150|km2}} in total size.<ref name="BBC News 2007">"Map reveals ancient urban sprawl," ''BBC News'', 14 August 2007.</ref> Although its population remains a topic of research and debate, newly identified agricultural systems in the Angkor area may have supported up to one million people.<ref>[http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/metropolis-angkor-the-worlds-first-megacity-461623.html Metropolis: Angkor, the world's first mega-city], The Independent, August 15, 2007</ref>
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| Agriculture was practiced in sub-Saharan Africa since the third millennium BC. Because of this, cities were able to develop as centers of non-agricultural activity. Exactly when this first happened is still a topic of archeological and historical investigation. Western scholarship has tended to focus on cities in Europe and Mesopotamia, but emerging archeological evidence indicates that urbanization occurred south of the Sahara well before the influence of Arab [[urban culture]]. One of the oldest sites documented thus far, [[Jenné-Jeno]] in what is today Mali, has in fact been dated back to the third century BC. According to Roderick and Susan McIntosh, Jenné-Jeno did not fit into traditional Western conceptions of urbanity as it lacked monumental architecture and a distinctive elite social class, but it should indeed be considered a city based on more a more functional redefinition of urban development. In particular, Jenné-Jeno featured settlement mounds arranged according to a horizontal, rather than vertical, power hierarchy, and served as a center of specialized production and exhibited functional interdependence with the surrounding hinterland.<ref><span style="font-size: 11.818181991577148px; line-height: 17.27272605895996px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"> </span><span class="reference-text" style="font-size: 11.818181991577148px; line-height: 17.27272605895996px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">McIntosh, Roderic J., McIntosh, Susan Keech. "Early Urban Configurations on the Middle Niger: Clustered Cities and Landscapes of Power," Chapter 5.</span></ref> Archaeological evidence from Jenné-Jeno, specifically the presence of non-West African glass beads dated from the third century BC to the fourth century AD, indicates that pre-Arabic trade contacts probably existed between Jenné-Jeno and North Africa.<ref name=Magnavita>{{cite journal|last=Magnavita|first=Sonja|title=Initial Encounters: Seeking traces of ancient trade connections between West Africa and the wider world|url=http://afriques.revues.org/1145?lang=en|work=Afriques|year=2013|accessdate=December 13, 2013}}</ref> Additionally, other early urban centers in sub-Saharan Africa, dated to around 500 AD, include Awdaghust, Kumbi-Saleh the ancient capital of Ghana, and Maranda a center located on a trade rout between Egypt and Gao.<ref>''[http://markuswiener.com/book_reviews.html?products_id=93&products_name=History%20of%20African%20Cities%20South%20of%20the%20Sahara History of African Cities South of the Sahara]'' By Catherine Coquery
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| -Vidrovitch. 2005. ISBN 1-55876-303-1</ref>
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| ===Middle Ages===
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| [[File:Nuremberg chronicles - Nuremberga.png|thumb|This woodcut shows [[Nuremberg]] as a prototype of a flourishing and independent city in the 15th century]]
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| [[File:Bardejov namesti 3773.JPG||right|thumb|[[Bardejov]] in Slovakia - an example of a well-preserved medieval city. The building in the centre is a [[city hall]].]]
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| While David Kessler and [[Peter Temin]] consider ancient Rome the largest city before the 19th century, London was the first to exceed a population of 1 million.<ref>The organization of the grain trade in the early Roman Empire, David Kessler and Peter Temin</ref> George Modelski considers medieval Baghdad, with an estimated population of 1.2 million at its peak, the largest city before 19th century London and the first with a population of over one million.<ref name=Modelski>George Modelski, ''World Cities: –3000 to 2000'', Washington DC: FAROS 2000, 2003. ISBN 0-9676230-1-4. See also [http://faculty.washington.edu/modelski/ Evolutionary World Politics Homepage].</ref> Others estimate that Baghdad's population may have been as large as 2 million in the 9th century.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=International dictionary of historic places, Volume 4: Middle East and Africa|last=Trudy Ring, Robert M. Salkin|first=K. A. Berney, Paul E. Schellinger|year=1996|publisher=[[Taylor and Francis]]|page=116|ref=harv|postscript=<!--None-->}}</ref>
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| From the 9th through the end of the 12th century, the city of [[Constantinople]], capital of the [[Byzantine Empire]], was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe, with a population approaching 1 million.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cameron|first=Averil|title=The Byzantines|page=47|page=296|url=http://books.google.bg/books?id=59c6PSa5JCAC|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|year=2009|isbn=978-1-4051-9833-2|ref=harv}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Laiou|first=Angeliki E.|title=The Economic History of Byzantium (Volume 1)|pages=130–131|year=2002|location=Washington, DC|publisher=Dumbarton Oaks|editor=Angeliki E. Laiou|chapter=Writing the Economic History of Byzantium|url=http://www.doaks.org/publications/doaks_online_publications/EHB.html|ref=harv}}</ref>
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| During the [[European Middle Ages]], a town was as much a political entity as a collection of houses. City residence brought freedom from customary rural obligations to lord and community: ''"[[Stadtluft macht frei]]"'' ("City air makes you free") was a saying in Germany. In [[Continental Europe]] cities with a legislature of their own were not unheard of, the laws for towns as a rule other than for the countryside, the lord of a town often being another than for surrounding land. In the [[Holy Roman Empire]] some cities had no other lord than the emperor. In Italy [[medieval commune]]s had quite a statelike power. In exceptional cases like [[Venice]], [[Genoa]] or [[Lübeck]], cities themselves became powerful states, sometimes taking surrounding areas under their control or establishing extensive maritime empires. Similar phenomena existed elsewhere, as in the case of [[Sakai, Osaka|Sakai]], which enjoyed a considerable autonomy in late medieval Japan.
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| ===Early modern===
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| [[File:Wojciech Gerson - Gdańsk in the XVII century.jpg|thumb|right|[[Gdańsk]] in the 17th century]]
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| While the [[city-state]]s, or [[polis|poleis]], of the [[Mediterranean]] and [[Baltic Sea]] languished from the 16th century, Europe's larger capitals benefited from the growth of commerce following the emergence of an [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] trade. By the early 19th century, London had become the largest city in the world with a population of over a million, while Paris rivaled the well-developed regionally traditional capital cities of Baghdad, Beijing, Istanbul and [[Kyoto]].
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| During the Spanish colonization of the Americas the old Roman city concept was extensively used. Cities were founded in the middle of the newly conquered territories, and were bound to several laws about administration, finances and urbanism.
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| Most towns remained far smaller, so that in 1500 only some two dozen places in the world contained more than 100,000 inhabitants. As late as 1700, there were fewer than forty, a figure that rose to 300 in 1900. A small city of the early modern period might contain as few as 10,000 inhabitants, a town far fewer.{{Citation needed|date=June 2009}}
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| ===Industrial age===
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| [[File:Slum in Glasgow, 1871.jpg|thumb|[[Glasgow]] [[slum]] in 1871]]
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| The growth of modern industry from the late 18th century onward led to massive urbanization and the rise of new great cities, first in Europe and then in other regions, as new opportunities brought huge numbers of migrants from rural communities into urban areas. In the United States from 1860 to 1910, the invention of railroads reduced transportation costs, and large manufacturing centers began to emerge, thus allowing migration from rural to city areas. However, cities during those periods of time were deadly places to live in, due to health problems resulting from contaminated water and air, and communicable diseases. In the [[Great Depression]] of the 1930s [[Cities in the great depression|cities were hard hit by unemployment]], especially those with a base in heavy industry. In the U.S. urbanization rate increased forty to eighty percent during 1900–1990. Today the world's population is slightly over half urban,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.ncsu.edu/releases/2007/may/104.html |title=Mayday 23: World Population Becomes More Urban Than Rural |publisher=News.ncsu.edu |date= |accessdate=2009-02-07}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> with millions still streaming annually into the growing cities of Asia, Africa and Latin America.
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| ==External effects==
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| {{Original research|section|date=September 2007}}
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| Modern cities are known for creating their own [[microclimate]]s. This is due to the large clustering of heat absorbent surfaces that heat up in [[sunlight]] and that channel rainwater into underground ducts.
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| [[Waste]] and sewage are two major problems for cities, as is air pollution coming from various forms of combustion,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aklung.org/air-quality/indoor-air-quality/ |title=Indoor Air Quality — American Lung Association of Alaska |publisher=Aklung.org |date= |accessdate=2009-02-07}}</ref> including fireplaces, wood or coal-burning stoves, other heating systems,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://newsminer.com/news/2008/aug/20/epa-put-fairbanks-air-pollution-problem-list/ |title=Newsminer.com; EPA to put Fairbanks on air pollution problem list |publisher=Newsminer.com |date=2008-08-20 |accessdate=2009-02-07}}</ref> and [[internal combustion engine]]s. The impact of cities on places elsewhere, be it hinterlands or places far away, is considered in the notion of [[Ecological Footprint|city footprinting]] (''ecological footprint'').
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| Other negative external effects include health consequences such as communicable diseases, crime, and high traffic and commuting times. Cities cause more interaction with more people than rural areas, thus a higher probability to contracting contagious diseases. However, many inventions such as inoculations, vaccines, and water filtration systems have also lowered health concerns. Crime is also a concern in the cities. Studies have shown that crime rates in cities are higher and the chance of punishment after getting caught is lower. In cases such as burglary, the higher concentration of people in cities create more items of higher value worth the risk of crime. The high concentration of people also makes using auto mobiles inconvenient and pedestrian traffic is more prominent in metropolitan areas than a rural or suburban one.
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| Cities also generate positive external effects. The close physical proximity facilitates [[knowledge spillover]]s, helping people and firms exchange information and generate new ideas.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.philadelphiafed.org/files/br/brq401gc.pdf |title=Knowldege Spillovers |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2010-05-16}}</ref> A thicker labor market allows for better skill matching between firms and individuals. Population density enables also sharing of common infrastructure and production facilities, however in very dense cities, increased crowding and waiting times may lead to some negative effects.<ref>{{cite journal
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| | last1 = Borowiecki | first1 = Karol J.
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| | author1-link = Karol J. Borowiecki
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| | title = Agglomeration Economies in Classical Music
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| | journal = Papers in Regional Science, forthcoming
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| | year = 2013
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| | url = http://ideas.repec.org/p/cue/wpaper/awp-02-2013.html
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| }}</ref>
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| Another positive external effect of cities comes from the diverse social opportunities created when people of different backgrounds are brought together. Larger cities typically offer a wider variety of social interests and activities, letting people of all backgrounds find something they can be involved in.
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| Cities may, however, also have a positive influence on the environment. [[United Nations Human Settlements Programme|UN-HABITAT]] stated in its reports that city living can be the best solution for dealing with the rising population numbers (and thus still be a good approach on dealing with overpopulation) <ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/6244496.stm |title=UN Habitat calling urban living 'a good thing |publisher=BBC News |date=2007-06-27 |accessdate=2009-02-07}}</ref> This is because cities concentrate human activity into one place, making the environmental damage on other places smaller.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.michellenijhuis.com/ |title=National Geographic Magazine; Special report 2008: Changing Climate: Village Green |publisher=Michelle Nijhuis |date=2008-08-26 |accessdate=2009-02-07}}</ref> However, this can only be achieved if [[urban planning]] is improved<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unhabitat.org/content.asp?cid=2523&catid=5&typeid=6&subMenuId=0 |title=Un Habitat calling to rethink urban planning |publisher=Un-Habitat. |date= |accessdate=2009-02-07}}</ref> and if city services are properly maintained.
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| ==Distinction between cities and towns==
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| {{Quote box
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| |quote = There are probably as many different ways of conceiving what a city is as there are cities. A simple definition therefore has its attractions. The simplest is that a city is a human settlement where strangers are likely to meet.
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| |source = [[Richard Sennett]], ''The Fall of Public Man'', 1977, p. 39.<ref>[[Richard Sennett]], ''The Fall of Public Man'', Knopf (1977), p. 39. ISBN 0-14-100757-5</ref>
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| |width = 40%
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| |align = right
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| }}
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| The difference between ''towns'' and ''cities'' is differently understood in different parts of the world. Indeed, some languages other than English use a single word for both concepts. Iberian languages typically use a three-way designation (Catalan: ''"[[:ca:Poble (localitat)|poble]]"'', ''"[[:ca:Vila|vila]]"'', ''"[[:ca:Ciutat|ciutat]]"''; Galician: ''"[[:gl:Aldea|aldea]]"'', ''"[[:gl:Vila|vila]]"'', ''"[[:gl:Cidade|cidade]]"''; Portuguese: ''"[[:pt:Aldeia|aldeia]]"'', ''"[[:pt:Vila|vila]]"'', ''"[[:pt:Cidade|cidade]]"''; Spanish: ''"[[:es:Pueblo (población rural)|pueblo]]"'', ''"[[:es:Villa (población)|villa]]"'', ''"[[:es:Ciudad|ciudad]]"''—respectively "village", "town", "city"); Italian: "''[[:it:Villaggio|villaggio]]"'', "''[[:it:Paese (geografia)|paese]]''" ''"[[:it:Città|città]]"''—respectively "village", "village/town", "city/town"; but other [[Romance languages]] don't (French: ''"[[:fr:Village|village]]"'', ''"[[:fr:Ville|ville]]"'').{{Citation needed|date=August 2010}}
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| Even within the English-speaking world there is no one standard definition of a city: the term may be used either for a town possessing city status; for an urban locality exceeding an arbitrary population size; for a town dominating other towns with particular regional economic or administrative significance. In England, ''city'' is reserved for very large settlements and smaller historic settlements with a Cathedral (e.g. Lichfield), while smaller settlements without a Cathedral are called towns, and smaller still are villages and hamlets.{{Citation needed|date=September 2011}} In the US ''city'' is used for much smaller settlements.
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| Although ''city'' can refer to an agglomeration including suburban and satellite areas, the term is not usually applied to a conurbation (cluster) of ''distinct'' urban places, nor for a wider [[metropolitan area]] including more than one city, each acting as a focus for parts of the area. And the word "town" (also "downtown") may mean the center of the city.
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| ==Global cities==
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| {{Main|Global city}}
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| A global city, also known as a ''world city'', is a prominent centre of trade, banking, finance, innovation, and markets. The term "global city", as opposed to [[megacity]], was coined by [[Saskia Sassen]] in a seminal 1991 work.{{Citation needed|date=October 2007}} Whereas "megacity" refers to any city of enormous size, a global city is one of enormous power or influence. Global cities, according to Sassen, have more in common with each other than with other cities in their host nations. Notable examples of such cities include [[São Paulo]], London, [[Istanbul]], New York City, Hong Kong, Paris, Shanghai, Singapore, Mexico City, and Tokyo.
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| The notion of global cities is rooted in the concentration of [[Power (sociology)|power]] and capabilities within all cities. The city is seen as a container where skills and resources are concentrated: the better able a city is to concentrate its skills and resources, the more successful and powerful the city. This makes the city itself more powerful in the sense that it can influence what is happening around the world. Following this view of cities, it is possible to [[Global city#GaWC Inventory of World Cities|rank the world's cities hierarchically]].<ref name=ranking>John Friedmann and Goetz Wolff, "World City Formation: An Agenda for Research and Action," ''International Journal of Urban and Regional Research'', 6, no. 3 (1982): 319</ref>
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| Critics of the notion point to the different realms of power. The term ''global city'' is heavily influenced by economic factors and, thus, may not account for places that are otherwise significant. For example, cities like [[Istanbul]], [[Jerusalem]], [[Karbala]], Lisbon, [[Mashhad]], [[Mecca]], and Rome are powerful in religious and historical terms but would not be considered "global cities." Additionally, it has been questioned whether the city itself can be regarded as an actor.{{By whom|date=November 2010}}
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| In 1995, Kanter argued that successful cities can be identified by three elements: good thinkers (concepts), good makers (competence) or good traders ([[city network|connections]]). The interplay of these three elements, Kanter argued, means that good cities are not planned but managed.
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| {{Panorama
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| |image = File:NYC Panorama edit2.jpg
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| |height = 180
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| |alt = Modern global cities, like New York City, often include large central business districts that serve as hubs for economic activity.
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| |caption = <center>Modern global cities, like New York City, often include large central business districts that serve as hubs for economic activity.</center>
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| }}
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| ==Inner city==
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| {{Main|Inner city}}
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| In the United States, United Kingdom and Ireland, the term "inner city" is sometimes used with the connotation of being an area, perhaps a [[ghetto]], where people are less wealthy and where there is more crime. {{Citation needed|date=October 2010}} These connotations are less common in other Western countries, as deprived areas are located in varying parts of other Western cities. In fact, with the [[gentrification]] of some formerly run-down central city areas the reverse connotation can apply. In Australia, for example, the term "outer suburban" applied to a person implies a lack of sophistication. In Paris, the inner city is the richest part of the metropolitan area, where housing is the most expensive, and where elites and high-income individuals dwell. In the developing world, economic modernization brings poor newcomers from the countryside to build haphazardly at the edge of current settlement (see [[favelas]], [[shack]]s and [[shanty towns]]).
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| The United States, in particular, has a culture of anti-urbanism that dates back to colonial times. The American [[City Beautiful]] architecture movement of the late 19th century was a reaction to perceived [[urban decay]] and sought to provide stately civic buildings and boulevards to inspire civic pride in the motley residents of the urban core. Modern anti-urban attitudes are found in the United States in the form of a planning profession that continues to develop land on a low-density suburban basis, where access to amenities, work and shopping is provided almost exclusively by car rather than by foot or transit.
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| However, there is a growing movement in North America called "[[New Urbanism]]" that calls for a return to traditional city planning methods where mixed-use zoning allows people to walk from one type of land-use to another. The idea is that housing, shopping, office space, and leisure facilities are all provided within walking distance of each other, thus reducing the demand for road-space and also improving the efficiency and effectiveness of [[mass transit]].
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| ==21st century==
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| {{wide image|Tirana Albania pano 2004-07-14.jpg|1000px|Panoramic view of [[Tirana]], [[Albania]] from [[Mount Dajt]] in 2004.}}
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| There is a debate about whether [[high technology|technology]] and instantaneous communications are making cities obsolete, or reinforcing the importance of big cities as centres of the [[knowledge economy]].<ref>Castells, M. (ed) (2004). ''The network society: a cross-cultural perspective''. London: Edward Elgar. (ebook)</ref><ref>Flew, T. (2008). ''New media: an introduction'', 3rd edn, South Melbourne: Oxford University Press</ref><ref>Harford, T. (2008) ''The Logic of Life''. London: Little, Brown.</ref> Knowledge-based development of cities, globalization of innovation networks, and broadband services are driving forces of a new city planning paradigm towards [[intelligent cities]]. Intelligent / [[smart cities]] use technology and communication to create more efficient agglomerations in terms of competitiveness, innovation, environment, energy, utilities, governance, and delivery of services to the citizen. Some companies are building brand new [[land use planning|masterplanned]] cities from scratch on [[greenfield land|greenfield]] sites.
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| * [[Gujarat International Finance Tec-City]], India
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| * [[Nano City]], India
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| * [[Putrajaya]], Malaysia
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| * [[King Abdullah Economic City]], Saudi Arabia
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| * [[Sejong City]], South Korea
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| * [[Songdo International Business District]], South Korea
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| * [[Dubai Waterfront]], United Arab Emirates
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| * [[Dubai World Central]], United Arab Emirates
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| * [[Masdar City]], United Arab Emirates
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| ==See also==
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| {{col-begin}}{{col-break}}
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| * [[Adjectivals and demonyms for cities]]
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| * [[Bibliography of suburbs]]
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| * [[Carfree city|Car free city]]
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| * [[City regions]]
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| * [[Developed environments]]
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| * [[Ekistics]]
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| * [[Environmental racism]]
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| * [[Global cities]]
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| * [[Homelessness]]
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| * [[Incorporation of nature within a city]]
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| * [[Large Cities Climate Leadership Group]]
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| * [[Lists of cities]]
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| {{col-break|gap=4em}}
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| * [[Lists of cities by country]]
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| * [[Lost city]]
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| * [[Megacities]]
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| * [[Metropolis]]
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| * [[Names of European cities in different languages]]
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| * [[Principles of Intelligent Urbanism]]
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| * [[Shrinking cities]]
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| * [[Suburb]]
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| * [[Urban design]]
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| * [[Urban geography]]
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| * [[Urban sociology]]
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| * [[Urban street]]
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| {{col-end}}
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| ==References==
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| '''Notes'''
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| {{reflist|30em}}
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| '''Bibliography'''
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| *{{Cite book|last=Bairoch|first=Paul|year=1988|title=Cities and Economic Development: From the Dawn of History to the Present|isbn=0-226-03465-8|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|location=Chicago|ref=harv|postscript=<!--None-->}}
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| * Chandler, T. ''Four Thousand Years of Urban Growth: An Historical Census''. Lewiston, NY: [[Edwin Mellen Press]], 1987.
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| * [[Patrick Geddes|Geddes, Patrick]], ''City Development'' (1904)
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| *{{Cite journal|last=Jacobs|first=Jane|year=1969|title=The Economy of Cities|place=New York|publisher=Random House Inc|ref=harv|postscript=<!--None-->}}
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| * Kemp, Roger L. '' Managing America's Cities: A Handbook for Local Government Productivity,'' McFarland and Company, Inc., Publisher, Jefferson, North Carolina, USA, and London, England, UK, 2007. (ISBN 978-0-7864-3151-9).
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| * Kemp, Roger L. ''How American Governments Work: A Handbook of City, County, Regional, State, and Federal Operations,'' McFarland and Company, Inc., Publisher, Jefferson, North Carolina, USA, and London, England, UK. (ISBN 978-0-7864-3152-6).
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| * Kemp, Roger L. "City and Gown Relations: A Handbook of Best Practices," McFarland and Copmpany, Inc., Publisher, Jefferson, North Carolina, USA, and London, England, UK, (2013). (ISBN 978-0-7864-6399-2).
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| * Monti, Daniel J., Jr., ''The American City: A Social and Cultural History''. Oxford, England and Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers, 1999. 391 pp. ISBN 978-1-55786-918-0.
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| * [[Lewis Mumford|Mumford, Lewis]], The City in History (1961)
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| *{{Cite book|last=O'Flaherty|first=Brendan|year=2005|title=City Economics|place=Cambridge Massachusetts|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|isbn=0-674-01918-0|ref=harv|postscript=<!--None-->}}
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| *{{Cite book|last=Pacione|first=Michael|year=2001|title=The City: Critical Concepts in The Social Sciences|place=New York|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=0-415-25270-9|ref=harv|postscript=<!--None-->}}
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| * Reader, John (2005) Cities. Vintage, New York.
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| * Robson, W.A., and Regan, D.E., ed., ''Great Cities of the World'', (3d ed., 2 vol., 1972)
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| * [[Witold Rybczynski|Rybczynski, W.]], ''City Life: Urban Expectations in a New World'', (1995)
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| * Smith, Michael E. (2002) [http://www.public.asu.edu/~mesmith9/1-CompleteSet/MES-02-EarlyCities.pdf ''The Earliest Cities. In Urban Life: Readings in Urban Anthropology, edited by George Gmelch and Walter Zenner''], pp. 3–19. 4th ed. Waveland Press, Prospect Heights, IL.
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| * Thernstrom, S., and Sennett, R., ed., ''Nineteenth-Century Cities'' (1969)
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| * [[Arnold J. Toynbee|Toynbee, Arnold J.]] (ed), ''Cities of Destiny'', New York: [[McGraw-Hill]], 1967. Pan historical/geographical essays, many images. Starts with "Athens", ends with "The Coming World City-Ecumenopolis".
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| * [[Max Weber|Weber, Max]], ''[[The City (book)|The City]]'', 1921. (tr. 1958)
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| '''Further reading'''
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| * Berger, Alan S., [http://books.google.com/books?id=INcgTPo-U1cC&printsec=frontcover ''The City: Urban Communities and Their Problems''], Dubuque, Iowa : William C. Brown, 1978.
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| * Glaeser, Edward, [http://books.google.com/books?id=-yWTIKsWGm4C&printsec=frontcover ''Triumph of the City''], Penguin, 2011
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| ==External links==
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| {{Sister project links|commons=Category:Cities|wikt=city|s=Cities}}
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| *[http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/index.htm World Urbanization Prospects, the 2011 Revision], Website of the United Nations Population Division
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| *{{Dmoz|Science/Social_Sciences/Geography/Human_Geography|Human Geography}}
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| *{{Dmoz|Science/Social_Sciences/Urban_and_Regional_Planning|Urban and Regional Planning}}
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| * [http://e-geopolis.eu/ Geopolis] - research group that studies the world's urbanization, Université Paris Diderot, France
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| {{Types of administrative country subdivision}}
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| [[Category:Administrative divisions]]
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| [[Category:Cities|*]]
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| [[Category:City| ]]
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| [[Category:Populated places by type]]
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| [[Category:Types of populated places]]
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