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| | Jade is an extremely challenging material, stronger than steel, and in pre-historical times was used for axe-heads, knives and weapons. It is only a lot more recently that Jade"s beauty has led to its use in j...<br><br>If I had [http://data.gov.uk/data/search?q=limitless+funds limitless funds] I would spend a big proportion of it on objects created from jade, each artefacts and modern pieces. The subtle shades of green and lilac are what appeal to me. Jade jewelry is understated, rather than the in your face obviousness of a lot of other stones.<br><br>Jade is an extremely challenging material, stronger than steel, and in pre-historical occasions was used for axe-heads, knives and weapons. To learn additional information, we recommend people check-out: [http://beverly.patch.com/groups/diane-rivas-blog/p/bp--kaminski-auctions-announces-winter-estate-auction company web site]. It is only far more lately that Jade"s beauty has led to its use in jewelry and fine ornaments.<br><br>There are two types of jade, jadeite and nephrite. The two have really different structures, but exhibit similar properties. The structural variations do not influence the utilizes to which the jade is place, they are only important to a collector of gems.<br><br>Jade comes in a range of colors, from the hugely sought following emerald green of "Imperial Jade" to delicate pinks and lavenders. The emerald green colour happens simply because the stones include a trace of chromium compounds. Other shades of green are due to the presence of iron compounds, even though the pink and lavender hues are produced by manganese compounds.<br><br>Most folks think of Chinese art when they feel of jade, and rightly so as early as 3000BC jade was known as the Royal Gem in China. In China jade symbolizes wisdom, justice, compassion, modesty and courage.<br><br>Jade is also found in New Zealand and in Central America. It was treasured by Mayas, Aztecs and Maoris hundreds of years ago. The ancient Egyptians admired jade too, attaching the values of harmony and balance to the gemstone.<br><br>Contemporary jewelry tends to favor the lavender jade, maybe simply because it is set off so nicely by silver and platinum settings. Jade bracelets, earrings and necklaces are all appealing to the modern eye, signifying excellent taste and expense just as significantly as sapphires and diamonds..Kaminksi Auctions<br><br>Main Office<br>564 Cabot St <br>Beverly, MA 01915<br>978-927-2223<br><br>If you liked this post and you would such as to obtain more details regarding health articles [[http://evasivedairy4709.soup.io soup.io]] kindly check out our own web-site. |
| [[File:Purcell diatonic chromaticism.png|thumb|400px|right|Melody from the opening of [[Henry Purcell]]'s "Thy Hand, Belinda", ''[[Dido and Aeneas]]'' (1689) with figured bass below ({{audio|Purcell diatonic chromaticism.mid|Play}}, {{audio|Purcell diatonic chromaticism fb.mid|Play}} with figured bass realization).]]
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| '''Figured bass''', or '''thoroughbass''', is a kind of [[musical notation]] in which numerals and symbols indicate [[interval (music)|intervals]], [[chord (music)|chord]]s, and [[non-chord tone]]s, in relation to the bass note they are placed above or below. Figured bass is closely associated with '''basso continuo''', a historically improvised [[accompaniment]] used in almost all genres of music in the [[Baroque music|Baroque period]], though rarely in modern music.
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| Other systems for [[Chord (music)#Notation|denoting or representing chords]] include<ref>{{Citation |last1=Benward |first1=Bruce |last2=Marilyn Nadine |first2=Saker |year=2003 |title=Music: In Theory and Practice, Vol. I |publisher=Mcgraw-Hill |edition=Seventh Edition |publication-place={{Place missing|date=August 2013}} |page=77 |ISBN=978-0-07-294262-0}}.</ref> plain [[staff notation]], used in [[classical music]]; [[Roman numeral analysis|Roman numerals]], commonly used in [[harmonic analysis (music)|harmonic analysis]];<ref>{{Citation |last=Schoenberg |first=Arnold |year=1983 |title=Structural Functions of Harmony |publisher=Mcgraw-Hill |edition=Seventh Edition |publication-place=London |pages=1-2 |ISBN= }}.</ref>
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| [[Macro analysis|macro symbols]], sometimes used in modern [[musicology]]; and various [[Chord names and symbols (jazz and pop music)|names and symbols]] used in [[jazz]] and [[popular music]].
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| ==Basso continuo==<!--[[Basso continuo]] redirects directly here.--> | |
| Basso continuo parts, almost universal in the [[Baroque music|Baroque]] era (1600–1750), provided the [[harmony (music)|harmonic]] structure of the music. The phrase is often shortened to ''continuo'', and the instrumentalists playing the continuo part, if more than one, are called the ''continuo group''. The titles of many Baroque works make mention of the continuo section, such as [[J. S. Bach]]'s [[Concerto for 2 violins, strings and continuo in D minor]].
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| The makeup of the continuo group is often left to the discretion of the performers, and practice varied enormously within the Baroque period. At least one instrument capable of playing chords must be included, such as a [[harpsichord]], [[organ (music)|organ]], [[lute]], [[theorbo]], [[guitar]], [[Regal (instrument)|regal]], or [[harp]]. In addition, any number of instruments which play in the [[bass (music)|bass]] register may be included, such as [[cello]], [[double bass]], [[viol|bass viol]], or [[bassoon]]. The most common combination, at least in modern performances, is harpsichord and cello for instrumental works and secular vocal works, such as [[opera]]s, and organ for [[sacred music]]. Typically performers match the [[Family (musical instruments)|instrument families]] used in the full ensemble: including bassoon when the work includes oboes or other winds, but restricting it to cello and/or double bass if only strings are involved. Harps, lutes, and other handheld instruments are more typical of early 17th-century music. Sometimes instruments are specified by the composer: in ''[[L'Orfeo]]'' (1607) Monteverde calls for an exceptionally varied instrumentation. with multiple harpsichords and lutes with a [[bass violin]] in the pastoral scenes followed by lamenting to the accompaniment of [[Positive organ|''organo di legno'']] and ''[[chitarrone]]'', while [[Charon]] stands watch to the sound of a regal.
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| The keyboard (or other chording instrument) player ''realizes'' a continuo part by playing, in addition to the indicated bass notes, upper notes to complete chords, either determined ahead of time or [[improvisation|improvised]] in performance. The figured bass notation, described below, is a guide, but performers are also expected to use their musical judgment and the other instruments or voices as a guide, and experienced players often incorporate [[Motive (music)|motives]] found in the other instrumental parts. Modern editions of such music usually supply a realized keyboard part, fully written out for a player, in place of improvisation. With the rise in [[historically informed performance]], however, the number of performers who improvise their parts, as Baroque players would have done, has increased.
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| Basso continuo, though an essential structural and identifying element of the Baroque period, continued to be used in many works, especially sacred choral works, of the [[Classical music era|classical]] period (up to around 1800). An example is [[C. P. E. Bach]]'s Concerto in D minor for flute, strings and basso continuo. Examples of its use in the 19th century are rarer, but they do exist: [[mass (music)|mass]]es by [[Anton Bruckner]], [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]], and [[Franz Schubert]], for example, have a basso continuo part for an organist to play.
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| ==Figured bass notation==
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| A part notated with figured bass consists of a bass-line notated with [[note]]s on a [[musical staff]] plus added numbers and [[Accidental (music)|accidental]]s beneath the staff to indicate what [[interval (music)|interval]]s above the bass notes should be played, and therefore which [[inversion (music)|inversions]] of which chords are to be played. The phrase ''[[tasto solo]]'' indicates that only the bass line (without any upper chords) is to be played for a short period, usually until the next figure is encountered.
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| Composers were inconsistent in the usages described below. Especially in the 17th century, the numbers were omitted whenever the composer thought the chord was obvious. Early composers such as [[Claudio Monteverdi]] often specified the octave by the use of [[interval (music)|compound intervals]] such as 10, 11, and 15.
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| Contemporary Figured Bass as taught at university level, may be summarized as follows, for memorization.
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| For diatonic triads:
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| *root position = blank or 5/3
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| *1st Inversion = 6 or 6/3
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| *2nd Inversion = 6/4
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| For 7th chords:
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| *root position = 7
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| *1st Inversion = 6/5
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| *2nd Inversion = 4/3
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| *3rd Inversion = 2 or 4/2
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| ===Numbers===
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| The numbers indicate the number of [[Scale (music)|scale]] steps above the given bass-line that a note should be played. For example:
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| <score>{ \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \time 6/4 \clef bass << { c1 } \figures { < 6 4 >1 } >> }</score>
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| Here, the bass note is a C, and the numbers 4 and 6 indicate that notes a fourth and a sixth above it should be played, that is an F and an A. In other words, the second inversion of an F major chord is to be played.
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| In cases where the numbers 3 or 5 would normally be indicated, these are usually (though not always) left out, owing to the frequency these intervals occur. For example:
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| <score>{ \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \clef bass << { \cadenzaOn c1 b, g, } \figures { < _ >1 < 6 > < 7 > } >> }</score> | |
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| In this sequence, the first note has no numbers accompanying it—both the 3 and the 5 have been omitted. This means that notes a third above and a fifth above should be played—in other words, a root position chord. The next note has a 6, indicating a note a sixth above it should be played; the 3 has been omitted—in other words, this chord is in first inversion. The third note has only a 7 accompanying it; here, as in the first note, both the 3 and the 5 have been omitted—the seven indicates the chord is a seventh chord. The whole sequence is equivalent to:
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| <score>{ \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \clef bass \cadenzaOn <c e g>1 <b, d g> <g, b, d f> }</score>
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| although the performer may choose which octave to play the notes in and will often elaborate them in some way rather than play only chords, depending on the [[tempo]] and [[texture (music)|texture]] of the music.
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| Sometimes, other numbers are omitted: a 2 on its own or 42 indicate 642, for example.
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| Sometimes the figured bass number changes but the bass note itself does not. In these cases the new figures are written wherever in the bar they are meant to occur. In the following example, the top line is supposed to be a melody instrument and is given merely to indicate the rhythm (it is not part of the figured bass itself):
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| <score>{ \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \time 6/4 << { e''2 e'' } \new Staff { \clef bass { c1 } } \figures { < 6 >2 < 5 > } >> }</score>
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| When the bass note changes but the notes in the chord above it are to be held, a line is drawn next to the figure or figures to indicate this:
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| <score>{ \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \time 6/4 \clef bass << { c2 b, } \figures { \bassFigureExtendersOn < 6 >2 < 6> } >> }</score>
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| The line extends for as long as the chord is to be held. | |
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| ===Accidentals===
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| When an [[accidental (music)|accidental]] is shown on its own without a number, it applies to the note a third above the lowest note; most commonly, this is the third of the chord. Otherwise, if a number is shown, the accidental affects the said interval. For example, this:
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| <score>{ \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \time 4/4 \clef bass << { e1 c } \figures { < _+ >1 < 6- _- > } >> }</score>
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| is equivalent to this:
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| <score>{ \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \time 4/4 \clef bass <e gis b>1 <c ees aes> }</score>
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| Sometimes the accidental is placed after the number rather than before it.
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| Alternatively, a cross placed next to a number indicates that the pitch of that note should be raised by a [[semitone]] (so that if it is normally a [[flat (music)|flat]] it becomes a natural, and if it is normally a natural it becomes a [[sharp (music)|sharp]]). A different way to indicate this is to draw a bar through the number itself. The following three notations, therefore, all indicate the same thing (that A{{music|natural}} should be played even though A{{music|flat}} would normally be played in this key signature):
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| <score>{ \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \time 4/4 \key c \minor \clef bass << { c1 c c } \figures { < 6! >1 < 6\+ > <6\\> } >> }</score>
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| When sharps or flats are used with [[key signature]]s they may have a slightly different meaning, especially in 17th-century music. A sharp might be used to cancel a flat in the key signature, or vice versa, instead of a [[natural sign]].
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| [[Image:Figured bass.png|left|thumb|500px|Example of Figured Bass in context. Taken from ''Beschränkt, ihr Weisen'', by [[J.S. Bach]] (R. 47/69). {{audio|Figured bass.mid|Play}}]]<br style="clear:both" />
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| == History ==
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| Improvised organ accompaniments for choral works were common by the late 16th century, and separate organ parts showing only a bass line date back to at least 1587. In the mid-16th century, some Italian church composers began to write [[polychoral]] works. These pieces, for two or more choirs, were created in recognition of particularly festive occasions, or else to take advantage of certain architectural properties of the buildings in which they were performed. With eight or more parts to keep track of in performance, works in polychoral style required some sort of instrumental accompaniment. They were also known as ''cori spezzati'', since the choirs were structured in musically independent or interlocking parts, and may sometimes also have been placed in physically different locations.
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| It is important to note that the concept of allowing two or more concurrently performing choirs to be independent structurally would or could almost certainly not have arisen had there not been an already existing practice of choral accompaniment in church. Financial and administrative records indicate the presence of organs in churches dates back to the 15th century. Although their precise use is not known, it stands to reason that it was to some degree in conjunction with singers. Indeed, there exist many first-person accounts of church services from the 15th and 16th centuries that imply organ accompaniment in some portions of the liturgy, as well as indicating that the ''a cappella''-only practice of the [[Vatican City|Vatican's]] ''[[Sistine Chapel|Cappella Sistina]]'' was somewhat unusual. By early in the 16th century, it seems that accompaniment by organ at least in smaller churches was commonplace, and commentators of the time lamented on occasion the declining quality of church choirs. Even more tellingly, many manuscripts, especially from the middle of the century and later, feature written-out organ accompaniments. It is this last observation which leads directly to the foundations of continuo practice, in a somewhat similar one called ''basso seguente'' or "following bass." | |
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| Written-out accompaniments are found most often in early polychoral works (those composed, obviously, before the onset of [[concertato|concerted]] style and its explicit instrumental lines), and generally consist of a complete reduction (to what would later be called the "grand staff") of one choir’s parts. In addition to this, however, for those parts of the music during which that choir rested was presented a single line consisting of the lowest note being sung at any given time, which could be in any vocal part. Even in early concerted works by the Gabrielis ([[Andrea Gabrieli|Andrea]] and [[Giovanni Gabrieli|Giovanni]]), [[Claudio Monteverdi|Monteverdi]] and others, the lowest part, that which modern performers colloquially call "continuo", is actually a basso seguente, though slightly different, since with separate instrumental parts the lowest note of the moment is often lower than any being sung.
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| The first known published instance of a basso seguente was a book of [[Introit]]s and [[Alleluia]]s by the Venetian [[Placido Falconio]] from 1575. What is known as "figured" continuo, which also features a bass line that because of its structural nature may differ from the lowest note in the upper parts, developed over the next quarter-century. The composer [[Lodovico Grossi da Viadana|Lodovico Viadana]] is often credited with the first publication of such a continuo, in a 1602 collection of motets that according to his own account had been originally written in 1594. Viadana’s continuo, however, did not actually include figures. The earliest extant part with sharp and flat signs above the staff is a [[motet]] by [[Giovanni Croce]], also from 1594.
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| Following and figured basses developed concurrently in secular music; such madrigal composers as [[Emilio de' Cavalieri]] and [[Luzzasco Luzzaschi]] began in the late 16th century to write works explicitly for a soloist with accompaniment, following an already standing practice of performing multi-voice madrigals this way, and also responding to the rising influence at certain courts of particularly popular individual singers. This tendency toward solo-with-accompaniment texture in secular vocal music culminated in the genre of [[monody]], just as in sacred vocal music it resulted in the [[sacred concerto]] for various forces including few voices and even solo voices. The use of numerals to indicate accompanying sonorities began with the earliest [[opera]]s, composed by Cavalieri and [[Giulio Caccini]].
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| These new genres, just as the polychoral one probably was, were indeed made possible by the existence of a semi- or fully independent bass line. In turn, the separate bass line, with figures added above to indicate other chordal notes, shortly became "functional," as the sonorities became "harmonies," (see [[harmony]] and [[tonality]]), and music came to be seen in terms of a melody supported by chord progressions, rather than interlocking, equally important lines as in [[polyphony]]. The figured bass, therefore, was integral to the development of the [[Baroque music|Baroque]], by extension the [[Classical music era|”classical”]], and by further extension most subsequent musical styles.
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| As part of the new [[Classical period (music)#The Baroque/Classical transition c. 1730–1760|galant]] style in the mid-18th century, with its emphasis on lighter and more varied textures, orchestral music dispensed with the basso continuo, and solo-with-accompaniment textures increasingly featured fully written-out accompaniments. By the second half of the 18th century, figured bass was almost entirely eliminated, except in sacred choral music, where it lingered until well after 1800: Beethoven's [[Mass in C major (Beethoven)|Mass in C major]] (1807), for example, has a figured bass part.
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| Many composers and theorists of the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries wrote how-to guides to realizing figured bass, including [[Gregor Aichinger]], [[Filippo Bonaffino]], [[Friedrich Erhard Niedt]], [[Georg Philipp Telemann]], [[Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach|C.P.E. Bach]], and [[Michael Praetorius]].
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| ==Contemporary uses==
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| It is also sometimes used by classical musicians as a shorthand way of indicating chords (though it is not generally used in modern musical compositions, save neo-Baroque pieces). A form of figured bass is used in notation of [[accordion]] music; another simplified form is used to notate [[guitar chord]]s. Today the most common use of figured bass notation is to indicate the [[inversion (music)|inversion]], however, often without the staff notation, using letter note names followed with the figure, for instance, if the harmony were a C major, with the bass note a G, it would be written <math>\mbox{C}_4^6</math>; with an E in the bass, it would be written <math>\mbox{C}_6</math> (this is different from the Jazz notation, where a C6 is the chord C-E-G-A, i.e., a C major with an added 6th degree). The symbols can also be used with Roman numerals in analyzing [[diatonic functionality|functional harmony]], a usage called ''figured Roman''; see [[chord symbol]].
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| ==See also==
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| * [[Unfigured bass]]
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| ==Notes==
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| <references/> | |
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| ==Further reading==
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| *Schick, Kyle (2012) "Improvisation: Performer as Co-composer," Musical Offerings: Vol. 3: No. 1, Article 3. Available at: http://digitalcommons.cedarville.edu/musicalofferings/vol3/iss1/3
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| ==External links==
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| *[http://www.robertkelleyphd.com/figuredbass.htm Figured Bass Symbology] by Robert Kelley
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| *[http://www.robertkelleyphd.com/scaledegrharm.htm Chords that the (major) scale degrees (in the bass) can imply] by Robert Kelley
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| *[http://theoryofmusic.wordpress.com/2007/11/23/theory-and-practice-of-the-basso-continuo/ Theory and Practice of the Basso Continuo] by Barry Mitchell
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| *[http://www.bassus-generalis.org/ Historical sources on the subject of basso continuo - Viadana, Agazzari etc]
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| {{Accompaniment}}
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| {{Bass (sound)}}
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| {{Musical notation}}
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| {{Tonality}}
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| <!-- Interwiki search http://vs.aka-online.de/globalwpsearch/ -->
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| <!-- Basso continuo-->
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| [[Category:Accompaniment]]
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| [[Category:Bass (sound)]]
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| [[Category:Musical notation]]
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| [[Category:Musical terminology]]
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| [[Category:Tonality]]
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| {{Link FA|eo}}
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| [[es: Bajo cifrado]]
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Jade is an extremely challenging material, stronger than steel, and in pre-historical times was used for axe-heads, knives and weapons. It is only a lot more recently that Jade"s beauty has led to its use in j...
If I had limitless funds I would spend a big proportion of it on objects created from jade, each artefacts and modern pieces. The subtle shades of green and lilac are what appeal to me. Jade jewelry is understated, rather than the in your face obviousness of a lot of other stones.
Jade is an extremely challenging material, stronger than steel, and in pre-historical occasions was used for axe-heads, knives and weapons. To learn additional information, we recommend people check-out: company web site. It is only far more lately that Jade"s beauty has led to its use in jewelry and fine ornaments.
There are two types of jade, jadeite and nephrite. The two have really different structures, but exhibit similar properties. The structural variations do not influence the utilizes to which the jade is place, they are only important to a collector of gems.
Jade comes in a range of colors, from the hugely sought following emerald green of "Imperial Jade" to delicate pinks and lavenders. The emerald green colour happens simply because the stones include a trace of chromium compounds. Other shades of green are due to the presence of iron compounds, even though the pink and lavender hues are produced by manganese compounds.
Most folks think of Chinese art when they feel of jade, and rightly so as early as 3000BC jade was known as the Royal Gem in China. In China jade symbolizes wisdom, justice, compassion, modesty and courage.
Jade is also found in New Zealand and in Central America. It was treasured by Mayas, Aztecs and Maoris hundreds of years ago. The ancient Egyptians admired jade too, attaching the values of harmony and balance to the gemstone.
Contemporary jewelry tends to favor the lavender jade, maybe simply because it is set off so nicely by silver and platinum settings. Jade bracelets, earrings and necklaces are all appealing to the modern eye, signifying excellent taste and expense just as significantly as sapphires and diamonds..Kaminksi Auctions
Main Office
564 Cabot St
Beverly, MA 01915
978-927-2223
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