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| [[Image:Manometer inside.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The construction of a bourdon tube gauge. Construction elements are made of [[brass]]]]
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| Many techniques have been developed for the measurement of [[pressure]] and [[vacuum]]. Instruments used to measure pressure are called '''pressure gauges''' or '''vacuum gauges'''.
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| A '''manometer''' is an instrument that uses a column of liquid to measure pressure, although the term is often used nowadays to mean any [[pressure]] [[measuring instrument]].
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| A '''vacuum gauge''' is used to measure the [[pressure]] in a [[vacuum]]—which is further divided into two subcategories, high and low vacuum (and sometimes [[ultra-high vacuum]]). The applicable pressure range of many of the techniques used to measure vacuums have an overlap. Hence, by combining several different types of gauge, it is possible to measure system pressure continuously from 10 [[Bar (unit)|mbar]] down to 10<sup>−11</sup> mbar.
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| ==Absolute, gauge and differential pressures - zero reference==
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| Everyday pressure measurements, such as for tire pressure, are usually made relative to ambient air pressure. In other cases measurements are made relative to a vacuum or to some other specific reference. When distinguishing between these zero references, the following terms are used:
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| *'''Absolute pressure''' is zero-referenced against a perfect vacuum, so it is equal to gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure.
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| *'''Gauge pressure''' is zero-referenced against ambient air pressure, so it is equal to absolute pressure minus atmospheric pressure. Negative signs are usually omitted. To distinguish a negative pressure, the value may be appended with the word "vacuum" or the gauge may be labeled a "vacuum gauge."
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| *'''Differential pressure''' is the difference in pressure between two points.
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| The zero reference in use is usually implied by context, and these words are added only when clarification is needed. [[tire-pressure gauge|Tire pressure]] and [[sphygmomanometer|blood pressure]] are gauge pressures by convention, while [[atmospheric pressure]]s, deep vacuum pressures, and [[altimeter|altimeter pressures]] must be absolute.
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| For most [[working fluid]]s where a fluid exists in a [[closed system]], gauge pressure measurement prevails. Pressure instruments connected to the system will indicate pressures relative to the current atmospheric pressure. The situation changes when extreme vacuum pressures are measured; absolute pressures are typically used instead.
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| Differential pressures are commonly used in industrial process systems. Differential pressure gauges have two inlet ports, each connected to one of the volumes whose pressure is to be monitored. In effect, such a gauge performs the mathematical operation of subtraction through mechanical means, obviating the need for an operator or control system to watch two separate gauges and determine the difference in readings.
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| Moderate vacuum pressure readings can be ambiguous without the proper context, as they may represent absolute pressure or gauge pressure without a negative sign. Thus a vacuum of 26 inHg gauge is equivalent to an absolute pressure of 30 inHg (typical atmospheric pressure) − 26 inHg = 4 inHg.
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| Atmospheric pressure is typically about 100 [[Pascal (unit)|kPa]] at sea level, but is variable with altitude and weather. If the absolute pressure of a fluid stays constant, the gauge pressure of the same fluid will vary as atmospheric pressure changes. For example, when a car drives up a mountain, the (gauge) tire pressure goes up because atmospheric pressure goes down. The absolute pressure in the tire is essentially unchanged.
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| Using atmospheric pressure as reference is usually signified by a ''g'' for gauge after the pressure unit, e.g. 70 psig, which means that the pressure measured is the total pressure minus [[atmospheric pressure]]. There are two types of gauge reference pressure: vented gauge (vg) and sealed gauge (sg).
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| A vented gauge [[pressure transmitter]] for example allows the outside air pressure to be exposed to the negative side of the pressure sensing diaphragm, via a vented cable or a hole on the side of the device, so that it always measures the pressure referred to ambient [[barometric pressure]]. Thus a vented gauge reference [[pressure sensor]] should always read zero pressure when the process pressure connection is held open to the air.
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| A sealed gauge reference is very similar except that atmospheric pressure is sealed on the negative side of the diaphragm. This is usually adopted on high pressure ranges such as [[hydraulics]] where atmospheric pressure changes will have a negligible effect on the accuracy of the reading, so venting is not necessary. This also allows some manufacturers to provide secondary pressure containment as an extra precaution for pressure equipment safety if the burst pressure of the primary pressure sensing [[diaphragm seal|diaphragm]] is exceeded.
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| There is another way of creating a sealed gauge reference and this is to seal a high [[vacuum]] on the reverse side of the sensing diaphragm. Then the output signal is offset so the pressure sensor reads close to zero when measuring atmospheric pressure.
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| A sealed gauge reference [[pressure transducer]] will never read exactly zero because atmospheric pressure is always changing and the reference in this case is fixed at 1 bar.
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| An [[absolute pressure]] measurement is one that is referred to absolute vacuum. The best example of an absolute referenced [[pressure]] is atmospheric or barometric pressure.
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| To produce an [[absolute pressure sensor]] the manufacturer will seal a high vacuum behind the sensing diaphragm. If the process pressure connection of an absolute pressure transmitter is open to the air, it will read the actual [[barometric pressure]].
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| ==Units==
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| {{Pressure Units}}
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| The [[SI]] unit for pressure is the [[pascal (unit)|pascal]] (Pa), equal to one [[newton (unit)|newton]] per [[square metre]] (N·m<sup>−2</sup> or kg·m<sup>−1</sup>·s<sup>−2</sup>). This special name for the unit was added in 1971; before that, pressure in SI was expressed in units such as N·m<sup>−2</sup>. When indicated, the zero reference is stated in parenthesis following the unit, for example 101 kPa (abs). The [[pounds per square inch|pound per square inch]] (psi) is still in widespread use in the US and Canada, for measuring, for instance, tire pressure. A letter is often appended to the psi unit to indicate the measurement's zero reference; psia for absolute, psig for gauge, psid for differential, although this practice is discouraged by the [[NIST]].<ref>[http://physics.nist.gov/Pubs/SP811/sec07.html#7.4 NIST]</ref>
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| Because pressure was once commonly measured by its ability to displace a column of liquid in a manometer, pressures are often expressed as a depth of a particular fluid (''e.g.,'' inches of water). Manometric measurement is the subject of [[pressure head]] calculations. The most common choices for a manometer's fluid are [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] (Hg) and [[water]]; water is nontoxic and readily available, while mercury's density allows for a shorter column (and so a smaller manometer) to measure a given pressure. The abbreviation "W.C." or the words "water column" are often printed on gauges and measurements that use water for the manometer.
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| Fluid density and local gravity can vary from one reading to another depending on local factors, so the height of a fluid column does not define pressure precisely. So measurements in "[[mmHg|millimetres of mercury]]" or "[[inHg|inches of mercury]]" can be converted to SI units as long as attention is paid to the local factors of fluid density and [[Gravity of Earth|gravity]]. Temperature fluctuations change the value of fluid density, while location can affect gravity.
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| Although no longer preferred, these '''manometric units''' are still encountered in many fields. [[Blood pressure]] is measured in millimetres of mercury (see [[torr]]) in most of the world, and lung pressures in [[centimetre of water|centimeters of water]] are still common, as in settings for CPAP machines. [[Natural gas]] pipeline pressures are measured in [[inch of water|inches of water]], expressed as "inches W.C." [[Scuba diving|Scuba divers]] often use a manometric [[rule of thumb]]: the pressure exerted by ten meters depth of water is approximately equal to one atmosphere. In vacuum systems, the units [[torr]],
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| micrometre of mercury ([[Micrometre of mercury|micron]]),{{cn|date=August 2013}}<!-- need a source for this use of "micron"; moreover, note that it is different than the definition given on the [[Micron (disambiguation)]] as of 2013-08-22 -->
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| and inch of mercury ([[inHg]]) are most commonly used. Torr and micron usually indicates an absolute pressure, while inHg usually indicates a gauge pressure.
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| Atmospheric pressures are usually stated using kilopascal (kPa), or atmospheres ([[atmosphere (unit)|atm]]), except in American [[meteorology]] where the hectopascal (hPa) and millibar ([[mbar]]) are preferred. In American and Canadian engineering, [[Stress (physics)|stress]] is often measured in [[kip (unit)|kip]]. Note that stress is not a true pressure since it is not [[scalar (physics)|scalar]]. In the [[cgs]] system the unit of pressure was the [[barye]] (ba), equal to 1 dyn·cm<sup>−2</sup>. In the [[Metre-tonne-second system of units|mts]] system, the unit of pressure was the [[pieze]], equal to 1 [[sthene]] per square metre.
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| Many other hybrid units are used such as mmHg/cm<sup>2</sup> or grams-force/cm<sup>2</sup> (sometimes as [[kg/cm<sup>2</sup>]] without properly identifying the force units). Using the names kilogram, gram, kilogram-force, or gram-force (or their symbols) as a unit of force is prohibited in SI; the unit of force in SI is the newton (N).
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| ==Static and dynamic pressure==
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| [[Static pressure]] is uniform in all directions, so pressure measurements are independent of direction in an immovable (static) fluid. Flow, however, applies additional pressure on surfaces perpendicular to the flow direction, while having little impact on surfaces parallel to the flow direction. This directional component of pressure in a moving (dynamic) fluid is called [[dynamic pressure]]. An instrument facing the flow direction measures the sum of the static and dynamic pressures; this measurement is called the [[total pressure]] or [[stagnation pressure]]. Since dynamic pressure is referenced to static pressure, it is neither gauge nor absolute; it is a differential pressure.
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| While static gauge pressure is of primary importance to determining net loads on pipe walls, dynamic pressure is used to measure flow rates and airspeed. Dynamic pressure can be measured by taking the differential pressure between instruments parallel and perpendicular to the flow. [[Pitot tube|Pitot-static tube]]s, for example perform this measurement on airplanes to determine airspeed. The presence of the measuring instrument inevitably acts to divert flow and create turbulence, so its shape is critical to accuracy and the calibration curves are often non-linear.
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| ===Applications===
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| *[[Altimeter]]
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| *[[Barometer]]
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| *[[MAP sensor]]
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| *[[Pitot tube]]
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| *[[Sphygmomanometer]]
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| ==Instruments==
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| Many instruments have been invented to measure pressure, with different advantages and disadvantages. Pressure range, sensitivity, dynamic response and cost all vary by several orders of magnitude from one instrument design to the next. The oldest type is the liquid column (a vertical tube filled with mercury) manometer invented by [[Evangelista Torricelli]] in 1643.
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| The U-Tube was invented by [[Christiaan Huygens]] in 1661.
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| ===Hydrostatic===
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| '''Hydrostatic''' gauges (such as the mercury column manometer) compare pressure to the hydrostatic force per unit area at the base of a column of fluid. Hydrostatic gauge measurements are independent of the type of gas being measured, and can be designed to have a very linear calibration. They have poor dynamic response.
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| ====Piston====
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| Piston-type gauges counterbalance the pressure of a fluid with a spring (for example [[tire-pressure gauge]]s of comparatively low accuracy) or a solid weight, in which case it is known as a [[deadweight tester]] and may be used for calibration of other gauges.
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| ====Liquid column====
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| {{main|Pressure head}}
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| [[Image:Utube.PNG|thumb|150px|right|The difference in fluid height in a liquid column manometer is proportional to the pressure difference. <math>h=\frac{P_a-P_o}{g \rho}</math>]]
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| By using [[Bernoulli's principle]] and the derived [[pressure head]] equation, liquids can be used for [[instrumentation]] where gravity is present. Liquid column gauges consist of a vertical column of liquid in a tube that has ends which are exposed to different pressures. The column will rise or fall until its weight (a force applied due to gravity) is in equilibrium with the pressure differential between the two ends of the tube (a force applied due to fluid pressure). A very simple version is a U-shaped tube half-full of liquid, one side of which is connected to the region of interest while the [[reference]] pressure (which might be the [[atmospheric pressure]] or a vacuum) is applied to the other. The difference in liquid level represents the applied pressure. The pressure exerted by a column of fluid of height ''h'' and density ''ρ'' is given by the hydrostatic pressure equation, ''P'' = ''hgρ''. Therefore the pressure difference between the applied pressure ''P<sub>a</sub>'' and the reference pressure ''P''<sub>0</sub> in a U-tube manometer can be found by solving {{nowrap|''P<sub>a</sub>'' − ''P''<sub>0</sub> {{=}} ''hgρ''}}. In other words, the pressure on either end of the liquid (shown in blue in the figure to the right) must be balanced (since the liquid is static) and so {{nowrap|''P<sub>a</sub>'' {{=}} ''P''<sub>0</sub> + ''hgρ''}}.
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| In most liquid column measurements, the result of the measurement is the height, ''h'', expressed typically in mm, cm, or inches. The ''h'' is also known as the [[pressure head]]. When expressed as a pressure head, pressure is specified in units of length and the measurement fluid must be specified. When accuracy is critical, the temperature of the measurement fluid must likewise be specified, because liquid density is a function of [[temperature]]. So, for example, pressure head might be written "742.2 mm<sub>Hg</sub>" or "4.2 in<sub>H<sub>2</sub>O</sub> at 59 °F" for measurements taken with mercury or water as the manometric fluid, respectively. The word "gauge" or "vacuum" may be added to such a measurement to distinguish between a pressure above or below the atmospheric pressure. Both mm of mercury and inches of water are common pressure heads which can be converted to S.I. units of pressure using [[unit conversion]] and the above formulas.
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| If the fluid being measured is significantly dense, hydrostatic corrections may have to be made for the height between the moving surface of the manometer working fluid and the location where the pressure measurement is desired except when measuring differential pressure of a fluid (for example across an orifice plate or venturi), in which case the density ρ should be corrected by subtracting the density of the fluid being measured.<ref>{{cite book|title=Methods for the Measurement of Fluid Flow in Pipes, Part 1. Orifice Plates, Nozzles and Venturi Tubes|year=1964|publisher=British Standards Institute|page=36}}</ref>
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| To measure the pressure of a fluid accurately using a liquid column, the fluid being measured should not be flowing for a static pressure measurement. A column connected to a flowing fluid will measure static plus [[dynamic pressure]]. So if a fluid is flowing, the liquid column will change due to dynamic pressure, proportional to the square of the fluid's [[velocity]]. This of course is precisely the desired measurement when a differential pressure measurement is needed for a [[venturi]] or an [[orifice plate]]. Measuring dynamic pressures is commonly used as an intermediary in determining a fluid's velocity or [[flow rate]]. See [[flow measurement]].
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| As an example, an airplane flying through the air at sea level would experience the atmospheric pressure as a static pressure exerted on the skin of the aircraft. However, the forward surfaces of an aircraft in flight experience dynamic pressure in addition to the static pressure. To measure the static air pressure, we use a barometer in still air. To measure the dynamic pressure, imagine a mercury manometer like the U-tube above with an open end pointing in the direction of the airplane's travel and a closed end kept at the static air pressure. Mercury is pushed down the tube farther than it would if only measuring still air. For a plane traveling around 129 m/s, the dynamic pressure adds about 10% to the atmospheric pressure at sea level. A U-tube for measuring dynamic pressure on an airplane would be impractical, so a [[pitot tube]] is used instead that relies on a [[Diaphragm (mechanical device)|diaphragm]] rather than columns of fluid. Although dynamic pressure can be measured directly, fluid speed and [[air speed]] can be measured indirectly using the Bernoulli principle if both dynamic and static pressures are known.
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| Although any fluid can be used, [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] is preferred for its high density (13.534 g/cm<sup>3</sup>) and low [[Vapor pressure|vapour pressure]]. For low pressure differences well above the vapour pressure of water, [[water]] is commonly used (and "[[Static pressure|inches of water]]" or "Water Column" is a common pressure unit). Liquid-column pressure gauges are independent of the type of fluid being measured and have a highly linear calibration. They have poor dynamic response because the fluid in the column may react slowly to a pressure change.
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| When measuring vacuum, the working liquid may evaporate and contaminate the vacuum if its [[vapor pressure]] is too high. When measuring liquid pressure, a loop filled with gas or a light fluid can isolate the liquids to prevent them from mixing but this can be unnecessary, for example when mercury is used as the manometer fluid to measure differential pressure of a fluid such as water. Simple hydrostatic gauges can measure pressures ranging from a few [[Torr]] (a few 100 Pa) to a few atmospheres. (Approximately 1,000,000 Pa)
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| A single-limb liquid-column manometer has a larger reservoir instead of one side of the U-tube and has a scale beside the narrower column. The column may be inclined to further amplify the liquid movement. Based on the use and structure following type of manometers are used<ref name=manometer_types>[Was: "fluidengineering.co.nr/Manometer.htm". At 1/2010 that took me to bad link. Types of fluid Manometers]</ref>
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| # Simple Manometer
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| # Micromanometer
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| # Differential manometer
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| # Inverted differential manometer
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| [[Image:McLeod gauge.jpg|thumb|200px|left|A McLeod gauge, drained of mercury]]
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| ====McLeod gauge====
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| A [[McLeod gauge]] isolates a sample of gas and compresses it in a modified mercury manometer until the pressure is a few [[Torr|mmHg]]. The gas must be well-behaved during its compression (it must not condense, for example). The technique is slow and unsuited to continual monitoring, but is capable of good accuracy.
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| :'''Useful range''': above 10<sup>-4</sup> torr <ref name=THV_V>[http://www.tau.ac.il/~phchlab/experiments/vacuum/Techniques_of_high_vacuum/Vacuum5.html Techniques of high vacuum]</ref> (roughly 10<sup>-2</sup> Pa) as high as 10<sup>−6</sup> Torr (0.1 mPa),
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| 0.1 mPa is the lowest direct measurement of pressure that is possible with current technology. Other vacuum gauges can measure lower pressures, but only indirectly by measurement of other pressure-controlled properties. These indirect measurements must be calibrated to SI units via a direct measurement, most commonly a McLeod gauge.<ref name=measure>{{Cite book| first=Thomas G. | last=Beckwith | coauthors=Roy D. Marangoni and John H. Lienhard V | year=1993 | title=Mechanical Measurements | edition=Fifth | publisher=Addison-Wesley | location=Reading, MA | isbn=0-201-56947-7 | pages=591–595 | chapter=Measurement of Low Pressures }}</ref>
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| ===Aneroid===
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| '''Aneroid''' gauges are based on a metallic pressure sensing element that flexes elastically under the effect of a pressure difference across the element. "Aneroid" means "without fluid," and the term originally distinguished these gauges from the hydrostatic gauges described above. However, aneroid gauges can be used to measure the pressure of a liquid as well as a gas, and they are not the only type of gauge that can operate without fluid. For this reason, they are often called '''mechanical''' gauges in modern language. Aneroid gauges are not dependent on the type of gas being measured, unlike thermal and ionization gauges, and are less likely to contaminate the system than hydrostatic gauges. The pressure sensing element may be a '''Bourdon tube''', a diaphragm, a capsule, or a set of bellows, which will change shape in response to the pressure of the region in question. The deflection of the pressure sensing element may be read by a linkage connected to a needle, or it may be read by a secondary transducer. The most common secondary transducers in modern vacuum gauges measure a change in capacitance due to the mechanical deflection. Gauges that rely on a change in capacitances are often referred to as Baratron gauges.
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| ====Bourdon====
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| [[Image:Manometer 104026.jpg|250px|right|thumb|Membrane-type manometer]]
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| The Bourdon pressure gauge uses the principle that a flattened tube tends to straighten or regain its circular form in cross-section when pressurized. Although this change in cross-section may be hardly noticeable, and thus involving moderate [[Stress (mechanics)|stress]]es within the elastic range of easily workable materials, the [[Deformation (mechanics)|strain]] of the material of the tube is magnified by forming the tube into a C shape or even a helix, such that the entire tube tends to straighten out or uncoil, elastically, as it is pressurized. [[Eugene Bourdon]] patented his gauge in France in 1849, and it was widely adopted because of its superior sensitivity, linearity, and accuracy; Edward Ashcroft purchased Bourdon's American patent rights in 1852 and became a major manufacturer of gauges. Also in 1849, Bernard Schaeffer in Magdeburg, Germany patented a successful diaphragm (see below) pressure gauge, which, together with the Bourdon gauge, revolutionized pressure measurement in industry.<ref>[http://www.archivingindustry.com/Indicator/discspring.htm ''The Engine Indicator'' Canadian Museum of Making]</ref> But in 1875 after Bourdon's patents expired, his company [[Budenberg Gauge Company|Schaeffer and Budenberg]] also manufactured Bourdon tube gauges.
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| In practice, a flattened thin-wall, closed-end tube is connected at the hollow end to a fixed pipe containing the fluid pressure to be measured. As the pressure increases, the closed end moves in an arc, and this motion is converted into the rotation of a (segment of a) gear by a connecting link that is usually adjustable. A small-diameter pinion gear is on the pointer shaft, so the motion is magnified further by the [[gear ratio]]. The positioning of the indicator card behind the pointer, the initial pointer shaft position, the linkage length and initial position, all provide means to calibrate the pointer to indicate the desired range of pressure for variations in the behavior of the Bourdon tube itself. Differential pressure can be measured by gauges containing two different Bourdon tubes, with connecting linkages.
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| Bourdon tubes measure [[gauge pressure]], relative to ambient atmospheric pressure, as opposed to [[absolute pressure]]; vacuum is sensed as a reverse motion. Some [[aneroid]] barometers use Bourdon tubes closed at both ends (but most use diaphragms or capsules, see below). When the measured pressure is rapidly pulsing, such as when the gauge is near a reciprocating pump, an [[:wikt:orifice|orifice]] restriction in the connecting pipe is frequently used to avoid unnecessary wear on the gears and provide an average reading; when the whole gauge is subject to mechanical vibration, the entire case including the pointer and indicator card can be filled with an oil or [[glycerin]]. Tapping on the face of the gauge is not recommended as it will tend to falsify actual readings initially presented by the gauge. The Bourdon tube is separate from the face of the gauge and thus has no effect on the actual reading of pressure. Typical high-quality modern gauges provide an accuracy of ±2% of span, and a special high-precision gauge can be as accurate as 0.1% of full scale.<ref>{{Cite book|last = Boyes |first = Walt |title = Instrumentation Reference Book, Fourth Edition |publisher = Butterworth-Heinemann |year = 2008 |pages = 1312}}</ref>
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| In the following illustrations the transparent cover face of the pictured combination pressure and vacuum gauge has been removed and the mechanism removed from the case. This particular gauge is a combination vacuum and pressure gauge used for automotive diagnosis:
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| [[Image:WPGaugeFace-2.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Indicator side with card and dial]]
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| [[Image:WPPressGaugeMech-2.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Mechanical side with Bourdon tube]]
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| * the left side of the face, used for measuring [[Inlet manifold|manifold vacuum]], is calibrated in [[torr|centimetres of mercury]] on its inner scale and [[inHg|inches of mercury]] on its outer scale.
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| * the right portion of the face is used to measure [[fuel pump]] pressure and is calibrated in [[Fraction (mathematics)|fractions]] of 1 [[kilogram-force|kgf]]/[[square centimeter|cm<sup>2</sup>]] on its inner scale and [[pound-force per square inch|pounds per square inch]] on its outer scale.
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| {{Clear}}
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| =====Mechanical details===== | |
| [[Image:WPPressGaugeDetailHC.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mechanical details]]
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| Stationary parts:
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| *A: Receiver block. This joins the inlet pipe to the fixed end of the Bourdon tube (1) and secures the chassis plate (B). The two holes receive screws that secure the case.
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| *B: Chassis plate. The face card is attached to this. It contains bearing holes for the axles.
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| *C: Secondary chassis plate. It supports the outer ends of the axles.
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| *D: Posts to join and space the two chassis plates.
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| Moving Parts:
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| # Stationary end of Bourdon tube. This communicates with the inlet pipe through the receiver block.
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| # Moving end of Bourdon tube. This end is sealed.
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| # Pivot and pivot pin.
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| # Link joining pivot pin to lever (5) with pins to allow joint rotation.
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| # Lever. This is an extension of the sector gear (7).
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| # Sector gear axle pin.
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| # Sector gear.
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| # Indicator needle axle. This has a spur gear that engages the sector gear (7) and extends through the face to drive the indicator needle. Due to the short distance between the lever arm link boss and the pivot pin and the difference between the effective radius of the sector gear and that of the spur gear, any motion of the Bourdon tube is greatly amplified. A small motion of the tube results in a large motion of the indicator needle.
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| # Hair spring to preload the gear train to eliminate gear lash and [[hysteresis]].
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| ====Diaphragm====
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| [[Image:Barograph 03.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A pile of pressure capsules with corrugated diaphragms in an aneroid [[barograph]]. ]]
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| A second type of aneroid gauge uses [[Deflection (engineering)|deflection]] of a flexible [[Artificial membrane|membrane]] that separates regions of different pressure. The amount of deflection is repeatable for known pressures so the pressure can be determined by using calibration. The deformation of a thin diaphragm is dependent on the difference in pressure between its two faces. The reference face can be open to atmosphere to measure gauge pressure, open to a second port to measure differential pressure, or can be sealed against a vacuum or other fixed reference pressure to measure absolute pressure. The deformation can be measured using mechanical, optical or capacitive techniques. Ceramic and metallic diaphragms are used.
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| :'''Useful range''': above 10<sup>-2</sup> [[Torr]] <ref name=schoonoverinc>[http://www.schoonoverinc.com/PDFs/Sky%20Brochure.pdf Product brochure from Schoonover, Inc]</ref> (roughly 1 [[Pascal (unit)|Pa]])
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| For absolute measurements, welded pressure capsules with diaphragms on either side are often used.
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| shape:
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| *Flat
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| *corrugated
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| *flattened tube
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| *capsule
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| ====Bellows====
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| In gauges intended to sense small pressures or pressure differences, or require that an absolute pressure be measured, the gear train and needle may be driven by an enclosed and sealed bellows chamber, called an '''aneroid''', which means "without liquid". (Early [[barometer]]s used a column of liquid such as [[water]] or the liquid metal [[mercury (element)|mercury]] suspended by a [[vacuum]].) This bellows configuration is used in aneroid barometers (barometers with an indicating needle and dial card), [[altimeter]]s, altitude recording [[barograph]]s, and the altitude telemetry instruments used in [[weather balloon]] [[radiosonde]]s. These devices use the sealed chamber as a reference pressure and are driven by the external pressure. Other sensitive aircraft instruments such as [[airspeed indicator|air speed indicators]] and rate of climb indicators ([[variometer]]s) have connections both to the internal part of the aneroid chamber and to an external enclosing chamber.
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| ==Electronic pressure sensors==
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| {{Main|Pressure sensor}}
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| ; Piezoresistive Strain Gage
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| :Uses the [[piezoresistive]] effect of bonded or formed strain gauges to detect strain due to applied pressure.
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| ; Capacitive
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| :Uses a diaphragm and pressure cavity to create a variable [[capacitor]] to detect strain due to applied pressure.
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| ; Magnetic
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| :Measures the displacement of a diaphragm by means of changes in [[inductance]] (reluctance), [[LVDT]], [[Hall Effect]], or by [[eddy current]] principal.
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| ; Piezoelectric
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| :Uses the [[piezoelectric]] effect in certain materials such as quartz to measure the strain upon the sensing mechanism due to pressure.
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| ; Optical
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| :Uses the physical change of an optical fiber to detect strain due applied pressure.
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| ; Potentiometric
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| :Uses the motion of a wiper along a resistive mechanism to detect the strain caused by applied pressure.
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| ; Resonant
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| :Uses the changes in [[resonant frequency]] in a sensing mechanism to measure stress, or changes in gas density, caused by applied pressure.
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| ===Thermal conductivity===
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| Generally, as a [[real gas]] increases in density -which may indicate an increase in [[pressure]]- its ability to conduct heat increases. In this type of gauge, a wire [[Electrical filament|filament]] is heated by running current through it. A [[thermocouple]] or [[Resistance Temperature Detector]] (RTD) can then be used to measure the temperature of the filament. This temperature is dependent on the rate at which the filament loses heat to the surrounding gas, and therefore on the thermal conductivity. A common variant is the [[Marcello Pirani|Pirani gauge]], which uses a single platinum filament as both the heated element and RTD. These gauges are accurate from 10<sup>−3</sup> Torr to 10 [[Torr]], but their calibration is sensitive to the chemical composition of the gases being measured.
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| ====Pirani (one wire)====
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| {{main|Pirani gauge}}
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| A [[Pirani gauge]] consist of a metal wire open to the pressure being measured. The wire is [[Joule heating|heated]] by a current flowing through it and cooled by the gas surrounding it. If the gas pressure is reduced, the cooling effect will decrease, hence the equilibrium temperature of the wire will increase. The [[Electrical resistance|resistance]] of the wire is a [[Electrical resistance#Temperature dependence|function of its temperature]]: by measuring the [[volt]]age across the wire and the [[Electric current|current]] flowing through it, the resistance (and so the gas pressure) can be determined. This type of gauge was invented by [[Marcello Pirani]].
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| ====Two-wire====
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| In two-wire gauges, one wire coil is used as a heater, and the other is used to measure temperature due to [[convection]]. '''Thermocouple gauges''' and '''thermistor gauges''' work in this manner using [[thermocouple]] or [[thermistor]], respectively, to measure the temperature of the heated wire.
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| ===Ionization gauge===
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| '''Ionization gauges''' are the most sensitive gauges for very low pressures (also referred to as hard or high vacuum). They sense pressure indirectly by measuring the electrical ions produced when the gas is bombarded with electrons. Fewer ions will be produced by lower density gases. The calibration of an ion gauge is unstable and dependent on the nature of the gases being measured, which is not always known. They can be calibrated against a [[McLeod gauge]] which is much more stable and independent of gas chemistry.
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| [[Thermionic emission]] generate electrons, which collide with gas atoms and generate positive [[ion]]s. The ions are attracted to a suitably [[Bias (electrical engineering)|biased]] electrode known as the collector. The current in the collector is proportional to the rate of ionization, which is a function of the pressure in the system. Hence, measuring the collector current gives the gas pressure. There are several sub-types of ionization gauge.
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| :'''Useful range''': 10<sup>-10</sup> - 10<sup>-3</sup> torr (roughly 10<sup>-8</sup> - 10<sup>-1</sup> Pa)
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| Most ion gauges come in two types: hot [[cathode]] and cold cathode. A third type that is more sensitive and expensive known as a spinning rotor gauge exists, but is not discussed here. In the [[Hot-filament ionization gauge|hot cathode]] version, an electrically heated filament produces an electron beam. The electrons travel through the gauge and ionize gas molecules around them. The resulting ions are collected at a negative electrode. The current depends on the number of ions, which depends on the pressure in the gauge. Hot cathode gauges are accurate from 10<sup>−3</sup> Torr to 10<sup>−10</sup> Torr. The principle behind [[cold cathode]] version is the same, except that electrons are produced in the discharge of a high voltage. Cold Cathode gauges are accurate from 10<sup>−2</sup> [[Torr]] to 10<sup>−9</sup> Torr. Ionization gauge calibration is very sensitive to construction geometry, chemical composition of gases being measured, corrosion and surface deposits. Their calibration can be invalidated by activation at atmospheric pressure or low vacuum. The composition of gases at high vacuums will usually be unpredictable, so a [[mass spectrometer]] must be used in conjunction with the ionization gauge for accurate measurement.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | editor=Robert M. Besançon | encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Physics | edition=3rd | year=1990 | publisher=Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York | isbn = 0-442-00522-9 | pages = 1278–1284 | article=Vacuum Techniques}}</ref>
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| ====Hot cathode====
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| [[Image:Bayard-Alpert gauge.jpg|right|thumb|200 px|Bayard-Alpert hot-cathode ionization gauge]]
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| A [[Hot-filament ionization gauge|hot-cathode ionization gauge]] is composed mainly of three electrodes acting together as a [[triode]], wherein the [[cathode]] is the filament. The three electrodes are a collector or plate, a [[Electrical filament|filament]], and a [[electrical grid|grid]]. The collector current is measured in [[picoamp]]s by an [[electrometer]]. The filament voltage to ground is usually at a potential of 30 volts, while the grid voltage at 180–210 volts DC, unless there is an optional [[electron bombardment]] feature, by heating the grid, which may have a high potential of approximately 565 volts.
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| The most common ion gauge is the hot-cathode '''Bayard-Alpert gauge''', with a small ion collector inside the grid. A glass envelope with an opening to the vacuum can surround the electrodes, but usually the '''Nude Gauge''' is inserted in the vacuum chamber directly, the pins being fed through a ceramic plate in the wall of the chamber. Hot-cathode gauges can be damaged or lose their calibration if they are exposed to atmospheric pressure or even low vacuum while hot. The measurements of a hot-cathode ionization gauge are always logarithmic.
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| Electrons emitted from the filament move several times in back and forth movements around the grid before finally entering the grid. During these movements, some electrons collide with a gaseous molecule to form a pair of an ion and an electron ([[Electron ionization]]). The number of these [[ions]] is proportional to the gaseous molecule density multiplied by the electron current emitted from the filament, and these ions pour into the collector to form an ion current. Since the gaseous molecule density is proportional to the pressure, the pressure is estimated by measuring the ion current.
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| The low-pressure sensitivity of hot-cathode gauges is limited by the photoelectric effect. Electrons hitting the grid produce x-rays that produce photoelectric noise in the ion collector. This limits the range of older hot-cathode gauges to 10<sup>−8</sup> Torr and the Bayard-Alpert to about 10<sup>−10</sup> Torr. Additional wires at cathode potential in the line of sight between the ion collector and the grid prevent this effect. In the extraction type the ions are not attracted by a wire, but by an open cone. As the ions cannot decide which part of the cone to hit, they pass through the hole and form an ion beam. This ion beam can be passed on to a:
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| * [[Faraday cup]]
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| * [[Microchannel plate detector]] with Faraday cup
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| * [[Quadrupole mass analyzer]] with Faraday cup
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| * [[Quadrupole mass analyzer]] with Microchannel plate detector Faraday cup
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| * [[ion len]]s and acceleration voltage and directed at a target to form a [[sputtering|sputter gun]]. In this case a valve lets gas into the grid-cage.
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| {{See also|Electron ionization}}
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| ====Cold cathode====
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| There are two subtypes of [[Cold cathode|cold-cathode]] ionization gauges: the '''Penning gauge''' (invented by [[Frans Michel Penning]]), and the '''Inverted magnetron''', also called a '''Redhead gauge'''. The major difference between the two is the position of the [[anode]] with respect to the [[cathode]]. Neither has a filament, and each may require a [[direct current|DC]] potential of about 4 [[volt|kV]] for operation. Inverted magnetrons can measure down to 1x10<sup>−12</sup> [[Torr]].
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| Likewise, cold-cathode gauges may be reluctant to start at very low pressures, in that the near-absence of a gas makes it difficult to establish an electrode current - in particular in Penning gauges, which use an axially symmetric magnetic field to create path lengths for electrons that are of the order of metres. In ambient air, suitable ion-pairs are ubiquitously formed by cosmic radiation; in a Penning gauge, design features are used to ease the set-up of a discharge path. For example, the electrode of a Penning gauge is usually finely tapered to facilitate the field emission of electrons.
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| Maintenance cycles of cold cathode gauges are, in general, measured in years, depending on the gas type and pressure that they are operated in. Using a cold cathode gauge in gases with substantial organic components, such as pump oil fractions, can result in the growth of delicate carbon films and shards within the gauge that eventually either short-circuit the electrodes of the gauge or impede the generation of a discharge path.
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| ==Calibration==
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| Pressure gauges are either direct- or indirect-reading. Hydrostatic and elastic gauges measure pressure are directly influenced by force exerted on the surface by incident particle flux, and are called direct reading gauges. Thermal and ionization gauges read pressure indirectly by measuring a gas property that changes in a predictable manner with gas density. Indirect measurements are susceptible to more errors than direct measurements.
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| *Dead-weight tester
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| *McLeod
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| *mass spec + ionization
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| ==Dynamic transients==
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| When fluid flows are not in equilibrium, local pressures may be higher or lower than the average pressure in a medium. These disturbances propagate from their source as longitudinal pressure variations along the path of propagation. This is also called sound. Sound pressure is the instantaneous local pressure deviation from the average pressure caused by a sound wave. Sound pressure can be measured using a [[microphone]] in air and a [[hydrophone]] in water. The effective sound pressure is the [[root mean square]] of the instantaneous sound pressure over a given interval of time. Sound pressures are normally small and are often expressed in units of microbar.
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| *frequency response of pressure sensors
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| *resonance
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| == Standards ==
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| The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) has developed two separate and distinct standards on pressure Measurement, B40.100 and PTC 19.2.
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| B40.100 provides guidelines on Pressure Indicated Dial Type and Pressure Digital Indicating Gauges, Diaphragm Seals, Snubbers, and Pressure Limiter Valves.
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| PTC 19.2 provides instructions and guidance for the accurate determination of pressure values in support of the ASME Performance Test Codes. The choice of method, instruments, required calculations, and corrections to be applied depends on the purpose of the measurement, the allowable uncertainty, and the characteristics of the equipment being tested.
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| The methods for pressure measurement and the protocols used for data transmission are also provides. Guidance is given for setting up the instrumentation and determining the uncertainty of the measurement. Information regarding the instrument type, design, applicable pressure range, accuracy, output, and relative cost is provided. Information is also provided on pressure-measuring devices that are used in field environments i.e., Piston Gauges, Manometers, and Low-Absolute-Pressure (Vacuum) Instruments.
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| These methods are designed to assist in the evaluation of measurement uncertainty based on current technology and engineering knowledge, taking into account published instrumentation specifications and measurement and application techniques. This Supplement provides guidance in the use of methods to establish the pressure-measurement uncertainty.
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| ==History==
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| {{Further|Timeline of temperature and pressure measurement technology}}
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| ==European (CEN) Standard==
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| * EN 472 : Pressure gauge - Vocabulary.
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| * EN 837-1 : Pressure gauges. Bourdon tube pressure gauges. Dimensions, metrology, requirements and testing.
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| * EN 837-2 : Pressure gauges. Selection and installation recommendations for pressure gauges.
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| * EN 837-3 : Pressure gauges. Diaphragm and capsule pressure gauges. Dimensions, metrology, requirements, and testing.
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| ==US (ASME) Standards==
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| * B40.100-2013: Pressure gauges and Gauge attachments.
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| * PTC 19.2-2010 : Performance test code for pressure measurement.
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| ==See also==
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| *[[Deadweight tester]]
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| *[[Force gauge]]
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| *[[Piezometer]]
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| *[[Sphygmomanometer]]
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| *[[Vacuum engineering]]
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| ==References==
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| {{Reflist}}
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| ==External links==
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| {{Commons|Pressure gauge}}
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| * [http://www.komar.org/faq/manometer/ Home Made Manometer]
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| * [http://www.upscale.utoronto.ca/PVB/Harrison/Manometer/Manometer.html Manometer]
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| {{DEFAULTSORT:Pressure Measurement}}
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| [[Category:Underwater diving safety equipment]]
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| [[Category:Vacuum]]
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| [[Category:Pressure gauges]]
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| [[Category:Measuring instruments]]
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