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| | == アオ未知の深呼吸、すぐに同情に竹を見て、ゆっくりと吐き出す == |
| {{redirect|Photographic|other uses|Photography (disambiguation)}}
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| [[File:Large format camera lens.jpg|thumb|right|Lens and mounting of a large-format camera]] | | チャプターアーティファクト破壊<br><br>静かな中庭、テーブルの上に青の未知座る、竹は残念である間以内にお茶を飲みながら来た。<br><br>「あなたがそれを心配しているか、無名の？ [http://www.lamartcorp.com/modules/mod_menu/rakuten_cl_5.php クリスチャンルブタン ブーツ] '青の未知の前面に同情竹茶。<br><br>アオ未知の深呼吸、すぐに同情に竹を見て、ゆっくりと吐き出す。「レディ、あなたは私がどのように行うことができ、私はフー黄アドバイスフー黄、フー黄を望んでいないビッグブラザービッグブラザーに行ってきましたが、彼女の弟を見てみたかった聞かせてください言った？それ？ '<br><br>'あなたはあまりにも長い間、このためにしたいですか [http://www.lamartcorp.com/modules/mod_menu/rakuten_cl_0.php クリスチャンルブタン 店舗]？'同情竹笑いを。<br>'あなたは良いアイデアを持っているか、？'<br>青の未知のこの苦痛の3つまたは4日間培養した。<br><br>同情竹小馬は言った： [http://www.lamartcorp.com/modules/mod_menu/rakuten_cl_8.php クリスチャンルブタン パンプス] 'あなたは愚かな、ああだ、なぜそれがあなただけのフー黄、しかし、フー黄そのお兄さんに連れて行くあなたがたにこれらのことを言ったことを決めるのはあなたには関係なければならない..'<br><br>「彼は出産を与えるだろう兄...... [http://www.lamartcorp.com/modules/mod_menu/rakuten_cl_10.php クリスチャンルブタン 直営店] '<br><br>「心配しないでください [http://www.lamartcorp.com/modules/mod_menu/rakuten_cl_6.php クリスチャンルブタン スニーカー]。「同情刺繍はビッグブラザーは、ドラゴン皇帝が最初に登場してはいけないときには、最初だけではあなたの兄弟を見、あなたが見る」、彼を中断し、それがあるかどうかあなたの兄弟、あなたはドラゴン皇帝の弟の景色が好きかどうか尋ね |
| '''Photography''' (derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] φῶς (''phos''), meaning "light", and γραφή (''graphê''), meaning "drawing, writing", together meaning "drawing with light")<ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=photography&searchmode=none Online Etymology Dictionary]</ref> is the [[art]], [[science]], and practice of creating durable [[image]]s by recording [[light]] or other [[electromagnetic radiation]], either chemically by means of a light-sensitive material such as [[photographic film]], or electronically by means of an [[image sensor]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Focal Dictionary of Photographic Technologies |last= Spencer|first=D A |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1973 |publisher=Focal Press |location= |isbn=978-0133227192 |page=454 |pages= |url= |accessdate=}}</ref> Typically, a [[Lens (optics)|lens]] is used to [[focus (optics)|focus]] the light reflected or emitted from objects into a [[real image]] on the light-sensitive surface inside a [[camera]] during a timed [[Exposure (photography)|exposure]]. The result in an electronic image sensor is an [[Charge-coupled device|electrical charge]] at each [[pixel]], which is [[Image processing|electronically processed]] and stored in a [[Image file formats|digital image file]] for subsequent display or processing. | | 相关的主题文章： |
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| | <li>[http://bbs.yyjshop.com/forum.php?mod=viewthread&tid=100395 http://bbs.yyjshop.com/forum.php?mod=viewthread&tid=100395]</li> |
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| The result in a [[photographic emulsion]] is an invisible [[latent image]], which is later chemically [[Photographic developer|developed]] into a visible image, either [[Negative (photography)|negative]] or [[Positive (photography)|positive]] depending on the purpose of the photographic material and the method of [[photographic processing|processing]]. A negative image on film is traditionally used to photographically create a positive image on a paper base, known as a [[Photographic print|print]], either by using an [[enlarger]] or by [[contact print]]ing.
| | == 'それから私たちは、それを起動してください == |
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| Photography has many uses for business, science, manufacturing (e.g. [[photolithography]]), art, recreational purposes, and mass communication.
| | どのように、セントはできる必要がありますか？ '<br><br>「かもしれない」と青鳳最初に合意した。<br>青風水、デュZhongjun、3メッセンジャー目華ヤンにおけるhuanhangrnは、アーティファクトは、彼らが取得したいほとんどのものです。<br><br>'それから私たちは、それを起動してください。「青風水は言った笑った [http://www.lamartcorp.com/modules/mod_menu/rakuten_cl_9.php クリスチャンルブタン メンズ]。<br><br>「ジェントルメンウォーキング、私ははるかに送られました [http://www.lamartcorp.com/modules/mod_menu/rakuten_cl_3.php クリスチャンルブタン 店舗]。「牙天軽く言った後、次の二つまたは三つのステップを向い明らかにキム·ウッド諸島指名手配金木島、牙天を飛ぶ、バックマロンタラの島に送られた [http://www.lamartcorp.com/modules/mod_menu/rakuten_cl_3.php クリスチャンルブタン 店舗]。<br>レンヘンは、4つの直接北飛ん<br>華ヤン、デュZhongjunは、目標は、乾隆帝の大陸である [http://www.lamartcorp.com/modules/mod_menu/rakuten_cl_6.php クリスチャンルブタン 中古]。九日の宮殿はあまり所持この9階宝物、秦Yuは息ほぼ千のトップグレードセントを受け取った、セント百個、各種貴重な万能薬が必要です [http://www.lamartcorp.com/modules/mod_menu/rakuten_cl_2.php クリスチャンルブタン 東京]。<br><br>「この限りトップグレードセントを持って、プラス私の中の神聖な獣「獣スペクトル '多数の十分な軍隊を作成します。 '秦ゆう英ムードは依然として非常に軽いです、彼は知らなかったものを外の世界。<br>他の充電時<br> |
| | | 相关的主题文章： |
| ==Etymology==
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| The word "photography" was created from the [[Greek language|Greek]] roots φωτός (''phōtos''), genitive of φῶς (''phōs''), "light"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dfa%2Fos φάος], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus</ref> and γραφή (''graphé'') "representation by means of lines" or "drawing",<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dgrafh%2F γραφή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus</ref> together meaning "drawing with light".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=photography&searchmode=none |title=Online Etymology Dictionary |publisher=Etymonline.com |date= |accessdate=2013-06-24}}</ref>
| | <li>[http://www.jmxjz.com/forum.php?mod=viewthread&tid=236858&fromuid=8672 http://www.jmxjz.com/forum.php?mod=viewthread&tid=236858&fromuid=8672]</li> |
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| Several people apparently coined the same new term from these roots independently. In 1834, in Campinas, Brazil, [[Hercules Florence]], a French painter and inventor, used the French form of the word, ''photographie'', in his private diary to describe his process.<ref>{{cite book | title = Hercule Florence: El descubrimiento de la fotografía en Brasil | author = Boris Kossoy | publisher = Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia| isbn = 968-03-0020-X | year = 2004 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=wCoQAAAACAAJ }}</ref>
| | <li>[http://www.cherumo.net/bbs/ibbs.cgi http://www.cherumo.net/bbs/ibbs.cgi]</li> |
| Credit is usually given to [[Sir John Herschel]] both for coining the word and for introducing it to the world as the result of his published [[Royal Society]] lecture in London on March 14, 1839. [[Johann von Maedler]], a Berlin astronomer, had already used it in an article published on February 25 of the same year in the German newspaper ''Vossische Zeitung''.<ref>{{Cite book| last = Eder | first = J.M | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = History of Photography, 4th. edition |trans_title= Geschichte der Photographie| year = 1945 | origyear = 1932 | publisher = Dover Publications, Inc. | location = New York | pages = 258–259 | url = | doi = | isbn = 0-486-23586-6}}</ref>
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| | | <li>[http://www.aishanghai419.net/home.php?mod=space&uid=26281 http://www.aishanghai419.net/home.php?mod=space&uid=26281]</li> |
| ==History and evolution==
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| {{Main|History of photography}}
| | </ul> |
| {{See also|History of the camera}}
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| [[File:Nicéphore Niépce Oldest Photograph 1825.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Earliest known surviving heliographic engraving, 1825, printed from a metal plate made by [[Joseph Nicéphore Niépce]] with his [[Heliography|"heliographic process"]].<ref name="utexas">{{cite web|title=The First Photograph — Heliography | url = http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/permanent/wfp/heliography.html |quote= from Helmut Gernsheim's article, "The 150th Anniversary of Photography," in History of Photography, Vol. I, No. 1, January 1977: ...In 1822, Niépce coated a glass plate... The sunlight passing through... This first permanent example... was destroyed... some years later. |accessdate=2009-09-29}}</ref> The plate was exposed under an ordinary engraving and copied it by photographic means. This was a step towards the first permanent photograph from nature taken with a camera obscura, in 1826.]]
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| ===Precursor technologies===
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| Photography is the result of combining several technical discoveries. Long before the first photographs were made, Chinese philosopher [[Mo Di]] and Greek mathematicians [[Aristotle]] and [[Euclid]] described a [[pinhole camera]] in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE.<ref>Jan Campbell (2005). "''[http://books.google.com/books?id=lOEqvkmSxhsC&pg=PA114&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false Film and cinema spectatorship: melodrama and mimesis]''". Polity. p. 114. ISBN 0-7456-2930-X</ref><ref name=krebs>{{Cite book| title = Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance | author = Robert E. Krebs | publisher = Greenwood Publishing Group | year = 2004 | isbn = 0-313-32433-6 | url = http://books.google.com/?id=MTXdplfiz-cC&pg=PA20&dq=Mo-Ti+pinhole+camera+obscura}}</ref> In the 6th century CE, Byzantine mathematician [[Anthemius of Tralles]] used a type of [[camera obscura]] in his experiments,<ref>[[Alistair Cameron Crombie]], ''Science, optics, and music in medieval and early modern thought'', p. 205</ref> [[Ibn al-Haytham]] (Alhazen) (965–1040) studied the camera obscura and pinhole camera,<ref name=krebs/><ref name=Wade2001>{{Cite journal| author = Wade, Nicholas J.; Finger, Stanley | year = 2001 | title = The eye as an optical instrument: from camera obscura to Helmholtz's perspective | journal = Perception | volume = 30 | issue = 10 | pages = 1157–77 | doi = 10.1068/p3210 | pmid = 11721819}}</ref> [[Albertus Magnus]] (1193–1280) discovered [[silver nitrate]],<ref>{{cite web| last = Davidson | first = Michael W | coauthors = National High Magnetic Field Laboratory at The Florida State University | title = Molecular Expressions: Science, Optics and You - Timeline - Albertus Magnus | publisher = The Florida State University | date = 2003-08-01 | url = http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/magnus.html | accessdate = 2009-11-28}}</ref> and [[Georg Fabricius]] (1516–71) discovered [[silver chloride]].<ref>Georges Potonniée (1973). ''The history of the discovery of photography''. Arno Press. p. 50. ISBN 0-405-04929-3</ref> Techniques described in the [[Book of Optics]] are capable of producing primitive photographs using medieval materials. <ref>Allen, Nicholas P. L.(1993) ''Is the Shroud of Turin the first recorded photograph? The South African Journal of Art History, November 11, 23–32</ref><ref>Allen, Nicholas P. L.(1994)''A reappraisal of late thirteenth-century responses to the Shroud of Lirey-Chambéry-Turin: encolpia of the Eucharist, vera eikon or supreme relic?'' The Southern African Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 4 (1),62–94</ref><ref>[http://www.unisa.ac.za/Default.asp?Cmd=ViewContent&ContentID=7268 Nicholas P L Allen, ''Verification of the Nature and Causes of the Photo-negative Images on the Shroud of Lirey-Chambéry-Turin]''</ref>
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| [[Daniele Barbaro]] described a [[Diaphragm (optics)|diaphragm]] in 1566.<ref name="history">[[Helmut Gernsheim]] (1986). ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GDSRJQ3BZ5EC&pg=PA3&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false A concise history of photography]''. Courier Dover Publications. pp. 3–4. ISBN 0-486-25128-4</ref> [[Wilhelm Homberg]] described how light darkened some chemicals (photochemical effect) in 1694.<ref>Helmut Gernsheim, Alison Gernsheim (1955). "''The history of photography from the earliest use of the camera obscura in the eleventh century up to 1914''". [[Oxford University Press]]. p. 20.</ref> The fiction book ''[[Giphantie]]'', published in 1760, by French author [[Tiphaigne de la Roche]], described what can be interpreted as photography.<ref name="history"/>
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| The discovery of the camera obscura that provides an image of a scene dates back to ancient China. Leonardo da Vinci mentions natural cameras obscura that are formed by dark caves on the edge of a sunlit valley. A hole in the cave wall will act as a pinhole camera and project a laterally reversed, upside down image on a piece of paper. So the birth of photography was primarily concerned with developing a means to fix and retain the image produced by the camera obscura.
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| The first success of reproducing images without a camera occurred when [[Thomas Wedgwood (photographer)|Thomas Wedgwood]], from the famous family of potters, obtained copies of paintings on leather using silver salts. Since he had no way of permanently fixing those reproductions (stabilizing the image by washing out the non-exposed silver salts), they would turn completely black in the light and thus had to be kept in a dark room for viewing.
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| Renaissance painters used the camera obscura which, in fact, gives the optical rendering in color that dominates Western Art. The camera obscura literally means "dark chamber" in Latin. It is a box with a hole in it which allows light to go through and create an image onto the piece of paper.
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| ===First camera photography (1820s)===
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| Invented in the early decades of the 19th century, photography by means of the camera seemed able to capture more detail and information than traditional media, such as painting and sculpture.<ref>Witt, Brown, Dunbar, Tirro, Witt. The Humanities, Cultural Roots and Continuities, Seventh Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company. Boston. New York. 2005</ref> Photography as a usable process goes back to the 1820s with the development of chemical photography. The first permanent [[photoetching]] was an image produced in 1822 by the [[France|French]] inventor [[Nicéphore Niépce]], but it was destroyed in a later attempt to make prints from it.<ref name="utexas" /> Niépce was successful again in 1825. He made the ''[[View from the Window at Le Gras]]'', the earliest surviving photograph from nature (i.e., of the image of a real-world scene, as formed in a [[camera obscura]] by a [[lens (optics)|lens]]), in 1826 or 1827.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=vftTAAAAMAAJ&q=Joseph+Nicephore+Niepce+View+From+the+Window+of+Gras&dq=Joseph+Nicephore+Niepce+View+From+the+Window+of+Gras&client=safari&cd=3 Seizing the Light: A History of Photography] By Robert Hirsch</ref>
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| Because Niépce's camera photographs required an extremely long [[exposure (photography)|exposure]] (at least eight hours and probably several days), he sought to greatly improve his [[Bitumen of Judea|bitumen]] process or replace it with one that was more practical. Working in partnership with [[Louis Daguerre]], he developed a somewhat more sensitive process that produced visually superior results, but it still required a few hours of exposure in the camera. Niépce died in 1833 and Daguerre then redirected the experiments toward the light-sensitive [[silver halide]]s, which Niépce had abandoned many years earlier because of his inability to make the images he captured with them light-fast and permanent. Daguerre's efforts culminated in what would later be named the [[daguerreotype]] process, the essential elements of which were in place in 1837. The required exposure time was measured in minutes instead of hours. Daguerre took the earliest confirmed photograph of a person in 1838 while capturing a view of a Paris street: unlike the other pedestrian and horse-drawn traffic on the busy boulevard, which appears deserted, one man having his boots polished stood sufficiently still throughout the approximately ten-minute-long exposure to be visible. Eventually, France agreed to pay Daguerre a pension for his process in exchange for the right to present his invention to the world as the gift of France, which occurred on August 19, 1839.
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| [[Image:Latticed window at lacock abbey 1835.jpg|thumb|right|180px|A latticed window in [[Lacock Abbey]], England, photographed by [[William Fox Talbot]] in 1835. Shown here in positive form, this may be the oldest extant photographic negative made in a camera.]]
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| Meanwhile, in Brazil, [[Hercules Florence]] had already created his own process in 1832, naming it ''Photographie'', and an English inventor, [[William Fox Talbot]], had created another method of making a reasonably light-fast silver process image but had kept his work secret. After reading about Daguerre's invention in January of 1839, Talbot published his method and set about improving on it. At first, like other pre-daguerreotype processes, Talbot's paper-based photography typically required hours-long exposures in the camera, but in 1840 he created the [[calotype]] process, with exposures comparable to the daguerreotype. In both its original and calotype forms, Talbot's process, unlike Daguerre's, created a translucent [[negative (photography)|negative]] which could be used to print multiple positive copies, the basis of most chemical photography up to the present day. Daguerreotypes could only be replicated by rephotographing them with a camera.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/fox_talbot_william_henry.shtml BBC - History - Historic Figures: William Henry Fox Talbot (1800 - 1877)] [[BBC]]</ref> Talbot's famous tiny paper negative of the Oriel window in [[Lacock Abbey]], one of a number of camera photographs he made in the summer of 1835, may be the oldest camera negative in existence.<ref>Anthony Feldman, Peter Ford (1989) ''Scientists & inventors'' p. 128. Bloomsbury Books, 1989</ref><ref>''William H. Fox Talbot, inventor of the negative-positive process'' p. 95. Macmillan, 1973</ref>
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| [[John Herschel]] made many contributions to the new field. He invented the [[cyanotype]] process, later familiar as the "blueprint". He was the first to use the terms "photography", "negative" and "positive". He had discovered in 1819 that [[sodium thiosulphate]] was a solvent of silver halides, and in 1839 he informed Talbot (and, indirectly, Daguerre) that it could be used to "fix" silver-halide-based photographs and make them completely light-fast. He made the first [[glass negative]] in late 1839.
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| <!--[[Image:Daguerreotype tintype photographer model studio table brady stand cast iron portrait photos.jpg|right|thumb|Mid-19th-century "Brady stand" photo model's armrest table, meant to keep portrait models still during long exposure times (studio equipment nicknamed after the famed US photographer, [[Mathew Brady]]).]] -- remove, not mentioned in body-->
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| In the March 1851 issue of ''The Chemist'', [[Frederick Scott Archer]] published his wet plate [[collodion]] process. It became the most widely used photographic medium until the gelatin dry plate, introduced in the 1870s, eventually replaced it. There are three subsets to the collodion process; the [[Ambrotype]] (a positive image on glass), the [[Ferrotype]] or Tintype (a positive image on metal) and the glass negative, which was used to make positive prints on [[albumen]] or salted paper.
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| Many advances in photographic glass plates and printing were made during the rest of the 19th century. In 1884, [[George Eastman]] developed an early type of [[photographic film|film]] to replace [[photographic plate]]s, leading to the technology used by film cameras today.
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| In 1891, [[Gabriel Lippmann]] introduced a process for making natural-color photographs based on the optical phenomenon of the [[Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] of light waves. His scientifically elegant and important but ultimately impractical invention earned him the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1908.
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| ===Black-and-white===
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| {{See also|Monochrome photography}}
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| All photography was originally monochrome, or ''[[black-and-white]]''. Even after color film was readily available, black-and-white photography continued to dominate for decades, due to its lower cost and its "classic" photographic look. The tones and contrast between light and dark shadows define black and white photography.<ref>"Black & White Photography." PSA Journal 77.12 (2011): 38-40. Academic Search Complete. Web. 3 Oct. 2013.
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| </ref> It is important to note that some monochromatic pictures are not always pure blacks and whites, but also contain other hues depending on the process. The cyanotype process produces an image composed of blue tones. The albumen process, first used more than 150 years ago, produces brown tones.
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| Many photographers continue to produce some monochrome images, often because of the established archival permanence of well processed silver halide based materials. Some full color digital images are processed using a variety of techniques to create black and whites, and some manufacturers produce digital cameras that exclusively shoot monochrome.
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| ===Color===
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| {{Main|Color photography}}
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| [[File:Prokudin-Gorskii-12.jpg|thumb|220px|[[Korolistskali]], Early color photograph taken by [[Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii|Prokudin-Gorskii]] (1915).]]
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| [[File:Dark room.jpg|thumb|A photographic [[darkroom]] with [[safelight]]]]
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| [[Color photography]] was explored beginning in the mid-19th century. Early experiments in color required extremely long exposures (hours or days for camera images) and could not "fix" the photograph to prevent the color from quickly fading when exposed to white light.
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| The first permanent color photograph was taken in 1861 using the three-color-separation principle first published by physicist [[James Clerk Maxwell]] in 1855. Maxwell's idea was to take three separate black-and-white photographs through red, green and blue [[filter (photography)|filter]]s. This provides the [[photographer]] with the three basic channels required to recreate a color image.
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| Transparent prints of the images could be projected through similar color filters and superimposed on the projection screen, an [[additive color|additive method]] of color reproduction. A color print on paper could be produced by superimposing [[carbon print]]s of the three images made in their [[complementary color]]s, a [[subtractive color|subtractive method]] of color reproduction pioneered by [[Louis Ducos du Hauron]] in the late 1860s.
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| Russian photographer [[Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii]] made extensive use of this color separation technique, employing a special camera which successively exposed the three color-filtered images on different parts of an oblong [[photographic plate|plate]]. Because his exposures were not simultaneous, unsteady subjects exhibited color "fringes" or, if rapidly moving through the scene, appeared as brightly colored ghosts in the resulting projected or printed images.
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| The development of color photography was hindered by the limited sensitivity of early photographic materials, which were mostly sensitive to blue, only slightly sensitive to green, and virtually insensitive to red. The discovery of dye sensitization by photochemist [[Hermann W. Vogel|Hermann Vogel]] in 1873 suddenly made it possible to add sensitivity to green, yellow and even red. Improved color sensitizers and ongoing improvements in the overall sensitivity of [[Photographic emulsion|emulsions]] steadily reduced the once-prohibitive long exposure times required for color, bringing it ever closer to commercial viability.
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| [[Autochrome]], the first commercially successful color process, was introduced by the [[Auguste and Louis Lumière|Lumière brothers]] in 1907. Autochrome [[photographic plate|plates]] incorporated a [[mosaic]] color filter layer made of dyed grains of [[potato starch]], which allowed the three color components to be recorded as adjacent microscopic image fragments. After an Autochrome plate was [[reversal film|reversal processed]] to produce a positive [[reversal film|transparency]], the starch grains served to illuminate each fragment with the correct color and the tiny colored points blended together in the eye, synthesizing the color of the subject by the [[additive color|additive method]]. Autochrome plates were one of several varieties of additive color screen plates and films marketed between the 1890s and the 1950s.
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| [[Kodachrome]], the first modern "integral tripack" (or "monopack") color film, was introduced by [[Kodak]] in 1935. It captured the three color components in a multilayer [[Photographic emulsion|emulsion]]. One layer was sensitized to record the red-dominated part of the [[visible spectrum|spectrum]], another layer recorded only the green part and a third recorded only the blue. Without special [[film processing]], the result would simply be three superimposed black-and-white images, but [[complementary color|complementary]] cyan, magenta, and yellow dye images were created in those layers by adding [[color coupler]]s during a complex processing procedure.
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| [[Agfa-Gevaert|Agfa's]] similarly structured [[Agfacolor|Agfacolor Neu]] was introduced in 1936. Unlike Kodachrome, the color couplers in Agfacolor Neu were incorporated into the emulsion layers during manufacture, which greatly simplified the processing. Currently available color films still employ a multilayer emulsion and the same principles, most closely resembling Agfa's product.
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| [[Instant film|Instant color film]], used in a special camera which yielded a unique finished color print only a minute or two after the exposure, was introduced by [[Polaroid Corporation|Polaroid]] in 1963.
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| Color photography may form images as positive transparencies, which can be used in a [[slide projector]], or as color negatives intended for use in creating positive color enlargements on specially coated paper. The latter is now the most common form of film (non-digital) color photography owing to the introduction of automated photo printing equipment.
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| ===Digital photography===
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| {{Main|Digital photography}}
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| {{See also|Digital camera|Digital versus film photography}}
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| In 1981, Sony unveiled the first consumer camera to use a [[charge-coupled device]] for imaging, eliminating the need for film: the [[Sony Mavica]]. While the Mavica saved images to disk, the images were displayed on television, and the camera was not fully digital. In 1991, Kodak unveiled the [[DCS 100]], the first commercially available digital single lens reflex camera. Although its high cost precluded uses other than [[photojournalism]] and professional photography, commercial [[digital photography]] was born.
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| Digital imaging uses an electronic [[image sensor]] to record the image as a set of electronic data rather than as chemical changes on film. <ref>Schewe, Jeff. The Digital Negative: Raw Image Processing In Lightroom, Camera Raw, and Photoshop. Berkeley, CA: Peachpit Press, 2012. pg. 72</ref> An important difference between digital and chemical photography is that chemical photography resists [[photo manipulation]] because it involves [[photographic film|film]] and [[photographic paper]], while digital imaging is a highly manipulative medium. This difference allows for a degree of image post-processing that is comparatively difficult in film-based photography and permits different communicative potentials and applications.
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| ==Camera development==
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| <!-- Images showing cameras typical for their time or cameras that were first of their kind (other suggestions for criterias?)--> | |
| <gallery widths="220" heights="180" perrow="5"> | |
| File:Studijskifotoaparat.JPG|19th century studio camera standing on tripod and using plates
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| File:Box Camera.jpg|[[Box camera]], one of the first mass-produced pocket cameras using film, c. 1900
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| File:No1-A Autographic Kodak Jr.jpg|Compact Kodak folding camera from 1922
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| File:Leica-II-Camera-1932 cropped.jpg|[[Leica Camera|Leica-II]], one of the first [[135 film]] cameras, 1932
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| File:Contax-s.jpg|[[Contax]] S of 1949 – the first [[pentaprism]] [[Single-lens reflex camera|SLR]]
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| File:Polaroid Colorpack 80.jpg|Polaroid Colorpack 80 instant camera, c 1975
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| File:Photography using Canon Digital IXUS 850 IS.jpg|[[Digital camera]], [[Canon Ixus]] class, c. 2000.
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| File:Capas-d1.jpg|Nikon D1, the first [[digital single-lens reflex camera|digital SLR]] used in journalism and sports photography, c. 2000
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| File:Phone photography.jpg|[[Smartphone]] with built-in camera spreads private images globally, c. 2010
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| </gallery>
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| ==Uses==
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| Photography gained the interest of many scientists and artists from its inception. Scientists have used photography to record and study movements, such as [[Eadweard Muybridge]]'s study of human and animal locomotion in 1887. Artists are equally interested by these aspects but also try to explore avenues other than the photo-mechanical representation of reality, such as the [[pictorialist]] movement.
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| Military, police, and security forces use photography for surveillance, recognition and data storage. Photography is used by amateurs to preserve memories, to capture special moments, to tell stories, to send messages, and as a source of entertainment. [[High speed photography]] allows for visualizing events that are too fast for the human eye.
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| ==Technical aspects==
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| {{main|Camera}}
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| The [[camera]] is the image-forming device, and [[photographic film]] or a [[silicon]] electronic [[image sensor]] is the sensing medium. The respective recording medium can be the film itself, or a digital electronic or magnetic memory.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dpreview.com/learn/?/glossary/ |title=Glossary: Digital Photography Review |publisher=Dpreview.com |date= |accessdate=2013-06-24}}</ref>
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| Photographers control the camera and lens to "expose" the light recording material (such as film) to the required amount of light to form a "[[latent image]]" (on film) or [[RAW file]] (in digital cameras) which, after appropriate processing, is converted to a usable image. [[Digital photography|Digital cameras]] use an electronic image sensor based on light-sensitive electronics such as [[charge-coupled device]] (CCD) or [[complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor]] (CMOS) technology. The resulting digital image is stored electronically, but can be reproduced on paper or film.
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| The camera (or '[[camera obscura]]') is a dark room or chamber from which, as far as possible, all light is excluded except the light that forms the image. The subject being photographed, however, must be illuminated. Cameras can range from small to very large, a whole room that is kept dark while the object to be photographed is in another room where it is properly illuminated. This was common for reproduction photography of flat copy when large film negatives were used (see [[Process camera]]).
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| As soon as photographic materials became "fast" (sensitive) enough for taking candid or surreptitious pictures, small "detective" cameras were made, some actually disguised as a book or handbag or pocket watch (the ''Ticka'' camera) or even worn hidden behind an [[Ascot tie|Ascot]] necktie with a tie pin that was really the lens.
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| The [[movie camera]] is a type of photographic camera which takes a rapid sequence of photographs on strips of film. In contrast to a still camera, which captures a single snapshot at a time, the movie camera takes a series of images, each called a "frame". This is accomplished through an intermittent mechanism. The frames are later played back in a movie projector at a specific speed, called the "frame rate" (number of frames per second). While viewing, a person's eyes and brain merge the separate pictures together to create the illusion of motion.<ref>Joseph and Barbara Anderson, "The Myth of Persistence of Vision Revisited", ''Journal of Film and Video'', Vol. 45, No. 1 (Spring 1993): 3–12. [http://www.uca.edu/org/ccsmi/ccsmi/classicwork/Myth%20Revisited.htm uca.edu]</ref>
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| ===Camera controls===
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| In all but certain specialized cameras, the process of obtaining a usable exposure must involve the use, manually or automatically, of a few controls to ensure the photograph is clear, sharp and well illuminated. The controls usually include but are not limited to the following:
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| !Control
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| !Description
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| |[[Focus (optics)|Focus]]
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| |The position of a viewed object or the adjustment of an optical device necessary to produce a clear image: in focus; out of focus.<ref name="Dictionary.com, LLC">{{cite web|title=Definition of focus|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/focus|publisher=IAC|accessdate=31 January 2012}}</ref>
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| |[[Aperture]]
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| |Adjustment of the [[Diaphragm (optics)|lens opening]], measured as [[f-number]], which controls the amount of light passing through the lens. Aperture also has an effect on [[depth of field]] and [[diffraction]] – the higher the f-number, the smaller the opening, the less light, the greater the depth of field, and the more the diffraction blur. The focal length divided by the f-number gives the effective aperture diameter.
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| |[[Shutter speed]]
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| |Adjustment of the speed (often expressed either as fractions of seconds or as an angle, with mechanical shutters) of the shutter to control the amount of time during which the imaging medium is exposed to light for each exposure. Shutter speed may be used to control the amount of light striking the image plane; 'faster' shutter speeds (that is, those of shorter duration) decrease both the amount of light and the amount of image blurring from motion of the subject and/or camera.
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| |[[Color balance|White balance]]
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| |On digital cameras, electronic compensation for the [[color temperature]] associated with a given set of lighting conditions, ensuring that white light is registered as such on the imaging chip and therefore that the colors in the frame will appear natural. On mechanical, film-based cameras, this function is served by the operator's choice of [[film stock]] or with color correction filters. In addition to using white balance to register natural coloration of the image, photographers may employ white balance to aesthetic end, for example white balancing to a blue object in order to obtain a warm [[color temperature]].
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| |[[Metering mode|Metering]]
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| |Measurement of exposure so that highlights and shadows are exposed according to the photographer's wishes. Many modern cameras meter and set exposure automatically. Before automatic exposure, correct exposure was accomplished with the use of a separate [[light meter|light metering device]] or by the photographer's knowledge and experience of gauging correct settings. To translate the amount of light into a usable aperture and shutter speed, the meter needs to adjust for the sensitivity of the film or sensor to light. This is done by setting the "film speed" or ISO sensitivity into the meter.
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| |[[ISO speed]]
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| |Traditionally used to "tell the camera" the [[film speed]] of the selected film on film cameras, ISO speeds are employed on modern digital cameras as an indication of the system's ''[[gain]]'' from light to numerical output and to control the automatic exposure system. The higher the ISO number the greater the film sensitivity to light, whereas with a lower ISO number, the film is less sensitive to light. A correct combination of ISO speed, aperture, and shutter speed leads to an image that is neither too dark nor too light, hence it is 'correctly exposed', indicated by a centered meter.
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| |[[Autofocus]] point
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| |On some cameras, the selection of a point in the imaging frame upon which the auto-focus system will attempt to focus. Many [[Single-lens reflex camera]]s (SLR) feature multiple auto-focus points in the viewfinder.
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| |}
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| Many other elements of the imaging device itself may have a pronounced effect on the quality and/or aesthetic effect of a given photograph; among them are:
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| * '''[[Focal length]]''' and '''type of lens''' ([[Normal lens|normal]], [[Long focus lens|long focus]], [[Wide-angle lens|wide angle]], [[Telephoto lens|telephoto]], [[Macro photography|macro]], [[fisheye lens|fisheye]], or [[Zoom lens|zoom]])
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| * '''[[Photographic filter|Filters]]''' placed between the subject and the light recording material, either in front of or behind the lens
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| * Inherent '''sensitivity''' of the medium to light intensity and color/wavelengths.
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| * The nature of the light '''recording material''', for example its resolution as measured in pixels or grains of [[silver halide]].
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| ===Exposure and rendering===
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| <!-- removing image with poor use of clone tool... [[File:Photographer at ocean beach.jpg|250px|left|thumb|A photographer using a [[Flash (photography)|flash]]]] -->
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| [[File:Freak Out, Oblivion, night.jpg|thumb|upright|Manual [[Shutter (photography)|shutter]] control and [[exposure (photography)|exposure]] settings can achieve unusual effects.]]
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| Camera controls are interrelated. The total amount of light reaching the film plane (the 'exposure') changes with the duration of exposure, aperture of the lens, and on the effective focal length of the lens (which in variable focal length lenses, can force a change in aperture as the lens is zoomed). Changing any of these controls can alter the exposure. Many cameras may be set to adjust most or all of these controls automatically. This automatic functionality is useful for occasional photographers in many situations.
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| The duration of an exposure is referred to as shutter speed, often even in cameras that do not have a physical shutter, and is typically measured in fractions of a second. It is quite possible to have exposures from one up to several seconds, usually for still-life subjects, and for night scenes exposure times can be several hours. However, for a subject that is in motion use a fast shutter speed. This will prevent the photograph from coming out blurry.<ref>FISHER, JIM. "Take Picture-Perfect Digital Photos." PC Magazine (2013): 134-141. Academic Search Complete. Web. 3 Oct. 2013.
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| </ref> | |
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| The effective aperture is expressed by an [[f-number]] or f-stop (derived from focal ratio), which is proportional to the ratio of the focal length to the diameter of the aperture. Longer lenses will pass less light even though the diameter of the aperture is the same due to the greater distance the light has to travel; shorter lenses (a shorter focal length) will be brighter with the same size of aperture.
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| [[File:Star Trails over the VLT in Paranal.jpg|thumb|left|[[Star trail]]s produced by long exposure photography in [[Paranal Observatory|Chile]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Star Trails over the VLT in Paranal|url=http://www.eso.org/public/images/potw1350a/|accessdate=16 December 2013|newspaper=ESO Picture of the Week}}</ref> ]]
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| The smaller the f/number, the larger the effective aperture. The present system of f/numbers to give the effective aperture of a lens was standardized by an international convention. There were earlier, different series of numbers in older cameras.
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| If the f-number is decreased by a factor of <math>\sqrt 2</math>, the aperture diameter is increased by the same factor, and its area is increased by a factor of 2. The f-stops that might be found on a typical lens include 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, 32, where going up "one stop" (using lower f-stop numbers) doubles the amount of light reaching the film, and [[stopping down]] one stop halves the amount of light.
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| Image capture can be achieved through various combinations of shutter speed, aperture, and film or sensor speed. Different (but related) settings of aperture and shutter speed enable photographs to be taken under various conditions of film or sensor speed, lighting and motion of subjects and/or camera, and desired depth of field. A slower speed film will exhibit less "grain", and a slower speed setting on an electronic sensor will exhibit less "noise", while higher film and sensor speeds allow for a faster shutter speed, which reduces motion blur or allows the use of a smaller aperture to increase the depth of field.
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| For example, a wider aperture is used for lower light and a lower aperture for more light. If a subject is in motion, then a high shutter speed may be needed. A [[Tripod (photography)|tripod]] can also be helpful in that it enables a slower shutter speed to be used.
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| For example, f/8 at 8 ms (1/125 of a second) and f/5.6 at 4 ms (1/250 of a second) yield the same amount of light. The chosen combination has an impact on the final result. The aperture and focal length of the lens determine the [[depth of field]], which refers to the range of distances from the lens that will be in focus. A longer lens or a wider aperture will result in "shallow" depth of field (i.e. only a small plane of the image will be in sharp focus). This is often useful for isolating subjects from backgrounds as in individual portraits or macro photography.
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| Conversely, a shorter lens, or a smaller aperture, will result in more of the image being in focus. This is generally more desirable when photographing landscapes or groups of people. With very small apertures, such as [[Pinhole camera|pinholes]], a wide range of distance can be brought into focus, but sharpness is severely degraded by [[diffraction-limited system|diffraction]] with such small apertures. Generally, the highest degree of "sharpness" is achieved at an aperture near the middle of a lens's range (for example, f/8 for a lens with available apertures of f/2.8 to f/16). However, as lens technology improves, lenses are becoming capable of making increasingly sharp images at wider apertures.
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| Image capture is only part of the image forming process. Regardless of material, some process must be employed to render the latent image captured by the camera into a viewable image. With slide film, the developed film is just mounted for [[slide projector|projection]]. Print film requires the developed film negative to be printed onto [[photographic paper]] or [[transparency (photography)|transparency]]. Digital images may be uploaded to an image server (e.g., a [[photo sharing|photo-sharing]] web site), viewed on a [[television]], or transferred to a [[computer]] or [[digital photo frame]]. Every type can be printed on more "classical" mediums such as regular paper or photographic paper for examples.
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| [[File:Rob McArthur.jpg|A photographer using a [[Tripod (photography)|tripod]] for greater stability during long [[Exposure (photography)|exposure]]. |250px|thumb]]
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| Prior to the rendering of a viewable image, modifications can be made using several controls. Many of these controls are similar to controls during image capture, while some are exclusive to the rendering process. Most printing controls have equivalent digital concepts, but some create different effects. For example, [[dodging and burning]] controls are different between digital and film processes. Other printing modifications include:
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| * Chemicals and process used during film development
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| * Duration of print exposure – equivalent to [[shutter speed]]
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| * Printing aperture – equivalent to [[aperture]], but has no effect on depth of field
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| * [[contrast (vision)|Contrast]] – changing the visual properties of objects in an image to make them distinguishable from other objects and the background
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| * [[Dodging and burning|Dodging]] – reduces exposure of certain print areas, resulting in lighter areas
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| * [[Dodging and burning|Burning in]] – increases exposure of certain areas, resulting in darker areas
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| * [[Photographic paper|Paper texture]] – [[gloss (material appearance)|glossy]], matte, etc.
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| * Paper type – resin-coated (RC) or fiber-based (FB)
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| * [[Paper size]]
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| * Exposure Shape — resulting prints in shapes such as circular, oval, loupe, etc.
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| * Toners – used to add warm or cold tones to black-and-white prints
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| ==Other photographic techniques==
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| ===Stereoscopic===
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| {{Main|Stereoscopy}}
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| Photographs, both monochrome and color, can be captured and displayed through two side-by-side images that emulate human stereoscopic vision. Stereoscopic photography was the first that captured figures in motion.<ref>Belisle, Brooke. "The Dimensional Image: Overlaps In Stereoscopic, Cinematic, And Digital Depth." Film Criticism 37/38.3/1 (2013): 117-137. Academic Search Complete. Web. 3 Oct. 2013.
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| </ref> While known colloquially as "3-D" photography, the more accurate term is [[stereoscopy]]. Such cameras have long been realized by using film, and more recently in digital electronic methods (including cellphone cameras).
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| ===Full-spectrum, ultraviolet and infrared===
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| [[File:Saturn's Rings in Ultraviolet Light.png|alt=|thumb|This image of the [[rings of Saturn]] is an example of the application of [[ultraviolet photography]] in [[ultraviolet astronomy|astronomy]]]]
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| {{Main|Full spectrum photography}}
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| [[Ultraviolet photography|Ultraviolet]] and [[infrared photography|infrared]] films have been available for many decades and employed in a variety of photographic avenues since the 1960s. New technological trends in digital photography have opened a new direction in [[full spectrum photography]], where careful filtering choices across the ultraviolet, visible and infrared lead to new artistic visions.
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| Modified digital cameras can detect some ultraviolet, all of the visible and much of the near infrared spectrum, as most digital imaging sensors are sensitive from about 350 nm to 1000 nm. An off-the-shelf digital camera contains an infrared [[hot mirror]] filter that blocks most of the infrared and a bit of the ultraviolet that would otherwise be detected by the sensor, narrowing the accepted range from about 400 nm to 700 nm.<ref>[http://surrealcolor.110mb.com/IR_explained_web/IR_explained.htm#CamColor Spectral curves of RGB and Hot Mirror filters.]</ref>
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| Replacing a hot mirror or infrared blocking filter with an infrared pass or a wide spectrally transmitting filter allows the camera to detect the wider spectrum light at greater sensitivity. Without the hot-mirror, the red, green and blue (or cyan, yellow and magenta) colored micro-filters placed over the sensor elements pass varying amounts of ultraviolet (blue window) and infrared (primarily red and somewhat lesser the green and blue micro-filters).
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| Uses of full spectrum photography are for [[fine art photography]], [[Remote sensing#Geodetic|geology]], [[History of forensic photography|forensics]] and law enforcement.
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| ==="Light field photography"===
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| Digital methods of image capture and display processing have enabled the new technology of "light field photography" (also known as synthetic aperture photography). This process allows focusing at various depths of field to be selected ''after'' the photograph has been captured.<ref>[https://www.lytro.com/renng-thesis.pdf ]{{dead link|date=December 2013}}</ref> As explained by [[Michael Faraday]] in 1846, the "[[light field]]" is understood as 5-dimensional, with each point in 3-d space having attributes of two more angles that define the direction of each ray passing through that point.
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| These additional vector attributes can be captured optically through the use of microlenses at each pixel-point within the 2-dimensional image sensor. Every pixel of the final image is actually a selection from each sub-array located under each microlens, as identified by a post-image capture focus algorithm.
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| {{see also|Light-field camera}}
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| ===Other image forming techniques===
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| Besides the camera, other methods of forming images with light are available. For instance, a [[photocopy]] or [[xerography]] machine forms permanent images but uses the transfer of static [[Electric charge|electrical charges]] rather than photographic film, hence the term [[electrophotography]]. [[Photogram]]s are images produced by the shadows of objects cast on the photographic paper, without the use of a camera. Objects can also be placed directly on the glass of an [[image scanner]] to produce digital pictures.
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| ==Future of film photography==
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| Digital [[point-and-shoot camera]]s have become widespread consumer products, outselling film cameras, and including new features such as [[video]] and [[digital audio|audio]] recording. Kodak announced in January 2004 that it would no longer sell reloadable 35 mm cameras in [[western Europe]], [[Canada]] and the [[United States]] after the end of that year. Kodak was at that time a minor player in the reloadable film cameras market. In January 2006, [[Nikon]] followed suit and announced that they will stop the production of all but two models of their film cameras: the low-end [[Nikon FM10]], and the high-end [[Nikon F6]]. On May 25, 2006, [[Canon Inc.|Canon]] announced they will stop developing new film SLR cameras.<ref>[http://www.indexstockimagery.com/archives/2006/05/canon_to_stop_m.html “Canon to Stop Making Single-Lens Camera”] Associated Press, 25 May 2006. Retrieved 2 September 2006.</ref> Though most new camera designs are now digital, a new 6x6cm/6x7cm [[Medium format (film)|medium format]] film camera was introduced in 2008 in a cooperation between [[Fujifilm|Fuji]] and [[Voigtländer]].<ref>{{cite web|author=RINGFOTO Group |url=http://www.voigtlaender.de/cms/voigtlaender/voigtlaender_cms.nsf/id/pa_fdih7jzkae.html |title=Voigtlaender - Bessa III |publisher=Voigtlaender.de |date= |accessdate=2013-06-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=H.M.A. Pennings |url=http://www.dcviews.com/press/Voigtlaender-Bessa.htm |title=The new Voigtlaender Vitolux S70 and Bessa III 667 |publisher=Dcviews.com |date=2008-10-12 |accessdate=2013-06-24}}</ref>
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| According to a survey made by Kodak in 2007 when the majority of photography was already digital, 75 percent of professional photographers say they will continue to use film, even though some embrace digital.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.photographypress.co.uk/news/news.phtml/6443/7467/Kodak-Survey-Photographers-Use-Film.phtml |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20081216051149/http://www.photographypress.co.uk/news/news.phtml/6443/7467/Kodak-Survey-Photographers-Use-Film.phtml |archivedate=2008-12-16 |title=Kodak survey: 75% of pro photographers still use film |publisher=Web.archive.org |date= |accessdate=2013-06-24}}</ref>
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| The [[Photo Marketing Association Annual Convention and Trade Show|PMA]] say that in the year 2000 nearly a billion rolls of film were sold each year and by 2011 a mere 20 million rolls, plus 31 million single-use cameras.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/tech/news/2011-06-03-photo-film_n.htm |title=How much longer can photo film hold on? - USATODAY.com |publisher=Usatoday30.usatoday.com |date= |accessdate=2013-06-24}}</ref>
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| ==Modes of production==
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| ===Amateur=== <!-- [[Amateur photography]] redirects here. --> | |
| An amateur photographer is one who practices photography as a [[hobby]] and not for profit. The quality of some amateur work is comparable to that of many [[professional]]s and may be highly specialized or [[Eclecticism in art|eclectic]] in choice of subjects. Amateur photography is often pre-eminent in photographic subjects which have little prospect of commercial use or reward. Amateur photography grew during the late 19th century due to the development of the hand-held camera.<ref> Peterson, Christian A. "Home Portraiture." History Of Photography 35.4 (2011): 374-387. Academic Search Complete. Web. 3 Oct. 2013.
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| </ref>
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| ===Commercial===
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| Commercial photography is probably best defined as any photography for which the photographer is paid for [[image]]s rather than [[works of art]]. In this light, money could be paid for the subject of the photograph or the photograph itself. Wholesale, retail, and professional uses of photography would fall under this definition. The commercial photographic world could include:
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| * Advertising photography: photographs made to illustrate and usually sell a service or product. These images, such as [[packshot]]s, are generally done with an [[advertising agency]], [[design firm]] or with an in-house corporate design team.
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| * Fashion and glamour photography usually incorporates [[photographic model|models]] and is a form of advertising photography. [[Fashion photography]], like the work featured in [[Harper's Bazaar]], emphasizes clothes and other products; glamour emphasizes the model and body form. Glamour photography is popular in advertising and [[men's magazine]]s. Models in [[glamour photography]] sometimes work [[Nude photography|nude]].
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| * [[Crime scene photography]] consists of photographing scenes of crime such as robberies and murders. A black and white camera or an [[infrared camera]] may be used to capture specific details.
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| * [[Still life photography]] usually depicts inanimate subject matter, typically commonplace objects which may be either natural or man-made. Still life is a broader category for food and some natural photography and can be used for advertising purposes.
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| * [[Food photography]] can be used for editorial, packaging or advertising use. Food photography is similar to still life photography, but requires some special skills.
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| * Editorial photography illustrates a story or idea within the context of a magazine. These are usually assigned by the magazine and encompass fashion and glamour photography features.
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| ** [[Photojournalism]] can be considered a subset of editorial photography. Photographs made in this context are accepted as a documentation of a news story.
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| * [[Portrait photography|Portrait]] and [[wedding photography]]: photographs made and sold directly to the end user of the images.
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| * [[Landscape photography]] depicts locations.
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| * [[Wildlife photography]] demonstrates the life of animals.
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| * [[Paparazzi]] is a form of photojournalism in which the photographer captures candid images of athletes, celebrities, politicians, and other prominent people.
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| * Pet photography involves several aspects that are similar to traditional studio portraits. It can also be done in natural lighting, outside of a studio, such as in a client's home.
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| [[File:All Around Chajnantor — A 360-degree panorama.jpg|thumb|center|upright=5|Landscape 360-degree panoramic picture of the [[Chajnantor]] plateau. In the center is Cerro Chajnantor itself. To the right, on the plateau, is the [[Atacama Pathfinder Experiment]] (APEX) telescope with Cerro Chascon behind it.<ref>{{cite news|title=All Around Chajnantor — A 360-degree panorama|url=http://www.eso.org/public/images/potw1215a/|accessdate=13 April 2012|newspaper=ESO Picture of the Week}}</ref> ]]
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| The market for photographic services demonstrates the [[aphorism]] "[[A picture is worth a thousand words]]", which has an interesting basis in the [[#History of photography|history of photography]]. Magazines and newspapers, companies putting up Web sites, advertising agencies and other groups pay for photography.
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| Many people take photographs for commercial purposes. Organizations with a budget and a need for photography have several options: they can employ a photographer directly, organize a public competition, or obtain rights to [[stock photography|stock photographs]]. Photo stock can be procured through traditional stock giants, such as [[Getty Images]] or [[Corbis]]; smaller [[microstock photography|microstock]] agencies, such as [[Fotolia]]; or web marketplaces, such as Cutcaster.
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| ===Art===
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| [[File:The Steerage 1907 Stieglitz Corrected.jpg|thumb|right|Classic [[Alfred Stieglitz]] photograph, ''[[The Steerage]]'' shows unique aesthetic of black-and-white photos.]]
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| During the 20th century, both [[fine art photography]] and [[documentary photography]] became accepted by the [[English language|English-speaking]] [[art]] world and the [[art gallery|gallery]] system. In the [[United States]], a handful of photographers, including [[Alfred Stieglitz]], [[Edward Steichen]], [[John Szarkowski]], [[F. Holland Day]], and [[Edward Weston]], spent their lives advocating for photography as a fine art.
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| At first, fine art photographers tried to imitate painting styles. This movement is called [[Pictorialism]], often using [[soft focus]] for a dreamy, 'romantic' look. In reaction to that, Weston, [[Ansel Adams]], and others formed the [[Group f/64]] to advocate '[[straight photography]]', the photograph as a (sharply focused) thing in itself and not an imitation of something else.
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| The [[aesthetics]] of photography is a matter that continues to be discussed regularly, especially in artistic circles. Many artists argued that photography was the mechanical reproduction of an image. If photography is authentically art, then photography in the context of art would need redefinition, such as determining what component of a photograph makes it [[beauty|beautiful]] to the viewer. The controversy began with the earliest images "written with light"; [[Nicéphore Niépce]], [[Louis Daguerre]], and others among the very earliest photographers were met with acclaim, but some questioned if their work met the definitions and purposes of art.
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| [[Clive Bell]] in his classic essay ''Art'' states that only "significant form" can distinguish art from what is not art.
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| {{quote|There must be some one quality without which a work of art cannot exist; possessing which, in the least degree, no work is altogether worthless. What is this quality? What quality is shared by all objects that provoke our aesthetic emotions? What quality is common to Sta. Sophia and the windows at Chartres, Mexican sculpture, a Persian bowl, Chinese carpets, Giotto's frescoes at Padua, and the masterpieces of Poussin, Piero della Francesca, and Cezanne? Only one answer seems possible — significant form. In each, lines and colors combined in a particular way, certain forms and relations of forms, stir our aesthetic emotions.<ref>[[Clive Bell]]. "[http://www.csulb.edu/~jvancamp/361r13.html Art]", 1914. Retrieved 2 September 2006.</ref>}}
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| On February 14, 2006, Sotheby’s London sold the 2001 photograph ''[[99 Cent II Diptychon]]'' for an unprecedented $3,346,456 to an anonymous bidder, making it the most expensive of all time.
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| [[Conceptual photography]] turns a concept or idea into a photograph. Even though what is depicted in the photographs are real objects, the subject is strictly abstract.
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| ===Science and forensics===
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| [[Image:Wootton bridge.jpg|thumb|[[Wootton bridge collapse]] in 1861]]
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| [[File:Wrightflyer highres.jpg|thumb|5×7 inch unretouched photograph of the [[Wright brothers]]' first flight, 1903]]
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| The camera has a long and distinguished history as a means of recording phenomena from the first use by Daguerre and Fox-Talbot, such as astronomical events ([[Solar eclipse#Photography|eclipse]]s for example), small creatures and plants when the camera was attached to the eyepiece of microscopes (in [[Micrograph|photomicroscopy]]) and for [[macro photography]] of larger specimens. The camera also proved useful in recording [[crime scene]]s and the scenes of accidents, such as the [[Wootton bridge collapse]] in 1861. The methods used in analysing photographs for use in legal cases are collectively known as [[forensic photography]]. Crime scene photos are taken from three vantage point. The vantage points are overview, mid-range, and close up.<ref>Rohde, R. R. (2000). Crime Photography. PSA Journal, 66(3), 15.
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| </ref>
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| By 1853, [[Charles Brooke (surgeon)|Charles Brooke]] had invented a technology for the [[automatic registration of instruments by photography]]. These instruments included [[barometer]]s, [[thermometer]]s, [[psychrometer]]s, and [[magnetometer]]s, which recorded their readings by means of an [[automated]] [[photographic]] process.<ref>
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| {{cite journal
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| | journal = The Illustrated Magazine of Art
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| | title = Photographic self-registering magnetic and meteorological apparatus: Invented by Mr. Brooke of Keppel-Street, London
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| | volume = 1
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| | publisher = New York: Alexander Montgomery
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| | pages = 308–311
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| | year = 1853
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| | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=DhfnAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA309
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| }}</ref>
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| Science uses image technology that has derived from the design of the Pin Hole camera. X-Ray machine are similar in design to Pin Hole cameras with high grade filters and laser radiation.<ref>P. D. Gupta, et al. "Development Of Single Frame X-Ray Framing Camera For Pulsed Plasma Experiments." Sadhana 31.5 (2006): 613-620. Academic Search Complete. Web. 3 Oct. 2013</ref>
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| Photography has become ubiquitous in recording events and data in science and engineering, and at [[crime scene]]s or accident scenes. The method has been much extended by using other wavelengths, such as [[infrared photography]] and [[ultraviolet photography]], as well as [[spectroscopy]]. Those methods were first used in the [[Victorian era]] and developed much further since that time.<ref>
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| {{cite book
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| | title = Understanding forensic digital imaging
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| | author = Herbert L. Blitzer, Karen Stein-Ferguson, Jeffrey Huang
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| | publisher = Academic Press
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| | year = 2008
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| | isbn = 978-0-12-370451-1
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| | pages = 8–9
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| | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=a0nmdTmHMrIC&pg=PA8
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| }}</ref>
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| ==Social and cultural implications==
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| There are many ongoing questions about different aspects of photography. In her writing "On Photography" (1977), [[Susan Sontag]] discusses concerns about the objectivity of photography. This is a highly debated subject within the photographic community.<ref>Bissell, K.L., Photography and Objectivity (2000) [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3677/is_200007/ai_n8895320 findarticles.com] . Retrieved 24 October 2008.</ref> Sontag argues, "To photograph is to appropriate the thing photographed. It means putting one’s self into a certain relation to the world that feels like knowledge, and therefore like power."<ref name=sontag>Sontag, S., On Photography, Penguin, London (1977), pp 3–24.</ref> Photographers decide what to take a photo of, what elements to exclude and what angle to frame the photo, and these factors may reflect a particular socio-historical context. Along these lines it can be argued that photography is a subjective form of representation.
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| Modern photography has raised a number of concerns on its impact on society. In [[Alfred Hitchcock]]'s ''[[Rear Window]]'' (1954), the camera is presented as promoting voyeurism. 'Although the camera is an observation station, the act of photographing is more than passive observing'.<ref name=sontag/> Michal Powell's ''Peeping Tom'' (1960) portrays the camera as both sexual and sadistically violent technology that literally kills in this picture and at the same time captures images of the pain and anguish evident on the faces of the female victims.{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}}
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| <blockquote>
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| "The camera doesn't rape or even possess, though it may presume, intrude, trespass, distort, exploit, and, at the farthest reach of metaphor, assassinate - all activities that, unlike the sexual push and shove, can be conducted from a distance, and with some detachment."<ref name=sontag/>
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| </blockquote>
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| Digital imaging has raised ethical concerns because of the ease of manipulating digital photographs in post-processing. Many photojournalists have declared they will not [[cropping|crop]] their pictures, or are forbidden from combining elements of multiple photos to make "[[photomontage]]s", passing them as "real" photographs. Today's technology has made [[image editing]] relatively simple for even the novice photographer. However, recent changes of in-camera processing allows digital fingerprinting of photos to detect tampering for purposes of [[forensic photography]].
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| Photography is one of the new media forms that changes perception and changes the structure of society.<ref>Levinson, P., The Soft Edge: a Natural History and Future of the Information Revolution, Routledge, London and New York (1997), pp 37–48.</ref> Further unease has been caused around cameras in regards to desensitization. Fears that disturbing or explicit images are widely accessible to children and society at large have been raised. Particularly, photos of war and pornography are causing a stir. Sontag is concerned that "to photograph is to turn people into objects that can be symbolically possessed." Desensitization discussion goes hand in hand with debates about censored images. Sontag writes of her concern that the ability to censor pictures means the photographer has the ability to construct reality.<ref name=sontag/>
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| One of the practices through which photography constitutes society is [[tourism]]. Tourism and photography combine to create a "tourist gaze"<ref>
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| {{Cite book
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| | title = The tourist gaze
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| | edition = 2nd
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| | author = John Urry
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| | publisher = SAGE
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| | year = 2002
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| | isbn = 978-0-7619-7347-8
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| | url = http://books.google.com/?id=bhhtg1sz0YAC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=
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| }}</ref>
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| in which local inhabitants are positioned and defined by the camera lens. However, it has also been argued that there exists a "reverse gaze"<ref>
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| {{cite web
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| | url = http://lse.academia.edu/AlexGillespie/Papers/89836/Tourist_photography_and_the_reverse_gaze
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| | title = Tourist Photography and the Reverse Gaze
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| | author = Alex Gillespie
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| }}</ref> through which indigenous photographees can position the tourist photographer as a shallow consumer of images.
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| Additionally, photography has been the topic of [[Songs about photography|many songs]] in popular culture.
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| ==Law==
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| {{Main| Photography and the law}}
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| Photography is both restricted as well as protected by the law in many jurisdictions. Protection of photographs is typically achieved through the granting of [[copyright]] or moral rights to the photographer. In the UK a recent law (Counter-Terrorism Act 2008) increases the power of the police to prevent people, even press photographers, from taking pictures in public places.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bjp-online.com/public/showPage.html?page=836675 |title=Jail for photographing police? - British Journal of Photography |publisher=Bjp-online.com |date= |accessdate=2013-06-24}}</ref>
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| ==See also==
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| {{Portal|Photography}}
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| *[[Outline of photography]]
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| *[[Science of photography]]
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| ==References==
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| <!--See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes
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| for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the <ref(erences/)> tags-->
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| {{Reflist|2}}
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| ==Further reading==
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| ===Introduction===
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| *''Photography. A Critical Introduction'' [Paperback], ed. by Liz Wells, 3rd edition, London [etc.]: Routledge, 2004, ISBN 0-415-30704-X
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| ===History===
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| * ''A New History of Photography'', ed. by Michel Frizot, Köln : Könemann, 1998
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| * Franz-Xaver Schlegel, ''Das Leben der toten Dinge - Studien zur modernen Sachfotografie in den USA 1914-1935'', 2 Bände, Stuttgart/Germany: Art in Life 1999, ISBN 3-00-004407-8.
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| ===Reference works===
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| * {{Cite book| author = Tom Ang | title = Dictionary of Photography and Digital Imaging: The Essential Reference for the Modern Photographer | year = 2002 | publisher = Watson-Guptill | isbn = 0-8174-3789-4 | url = http://books.google.com/?id=fu3akyrFZEMC&pg=PP1&dq=intitle:Dictionary+intitle:of+intitle:Photography+intitle:and+intitle:Digital+intitle:Imaging+inauthor:ang |authorlink=Tom Ang }}
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| * Hans-Michael Koetzle: ''Das Lexikon der Fotografen: 1900 bis heute'', Munich: Knaur 2002, 512 p., ISBN 3-426-66479-8
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| * John Hannavy (ed.): ''Encyclopedia of Nineteenth-Century Photography'', 1736 p., New York: Routledge 2005 ISBN 978-0-415-97235-2
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| * Lynne Warren (Hrsg.): ''Encyclopedia of Twentieth-Century Photography'', 1719 p., New York, NY [et.] : Routledge, 2006
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| * ''The Oxford Companion to the Photograph'', ed. by Robin Lenman, Oxford University Press 2005
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| * "The Focal Encyclopedia of Photography", Richard Zakia, Leslie Stroebel, Focal Press 1993, ISBN 0-240-51417-3
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| ===Other books===
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| * ''Photography and The Art of Seeing'' by [[Freeman Patterson]], Key Porter Books 1989, ISBN 1-55013-099-4.
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| * ''The Art of Photography:'' An Approach to Personal Expression by Bruce Barnbaum, Rocky Nook 2010, ISBN 1-933952-68-7.
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| * ''Image Clarity: High Resolution Photography'' by John B. Williams, Focal Press 1990, ISBN 0-240-80033-8.
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| ==External links==
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| {{Sister project links|Photography}}
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| <!----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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| ======================= {{No more links}} =============================-->
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| *{{dmoz|Arts/Photography|Photography}}
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| * [http://all-art.org/history658_photography1.html World History of Photography] From The History of Art.
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| * [http://www.floridamemory.com/photographiccollection/photo_exhibits/photographic-processes/ Daguerreotype to Digital: A Brief History of the Photographic Process] From the State Library & Archives of Florida.
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| * [http://www.photo-web.com.au/shadesoflight Shades of Light (Australian Photography 1839 - 1988)] the online version of the original Shades of Light published 1998, Gael Newton
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| * [http://click.si.edu Photography Changes Everything] is a collection of original essays, stories and images—contributed by experts from a spectrum of professional worlds and members of the project’s online audience—that explore the many ways photography shapes our culture and our lives, by the Smithsonian Institute.
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| *[http://www.reframingphotography.com Reframing Photography] is a website about photography in the widest possible sense of the word. Each presents a broad and inclusive rethinking of conceptual and technical aspects of photography across time periods, across themes, and through varied materials. Essays and how-to sections provide ideas, information, and inspiration for artists who use photography in varied ways.
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