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{{about||payments paid to unemployed people|unemployment benefits}}
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[[File:Unemployed men queued outside a depression soup kitchen opened in Chicago by Al Capone, 02-1931 - NARA - 541927.jpg|thumb|Unemployed men outside a soup kitchen in [[Chicago]], 1931.|upright=1.15]]
'''Unemployment''' (or '''joblessness''') occurs when people are without work and actively seeking work.<ref name=a>{{cite web|url=http://www.ilo.org/public/english/bureau/stat/download/res/ecacpop.pdf|author=International Labor Organization |title=Resolution concerning statistics of the economically active population, employment, unemployment, and underemployment, adopted by the Thirteenth International Conference of Labor Statisticians; see page 4 |date=October 1982 |accessdate=November 26, 2007 |format=PDF}}</ref> The [[unemployment rate]] is a measure of the prevalence of unemployment and it is calculated as a percentage by dividing the number of unemployed individuals by all individuals currently in the [[labor force]]. During periods of [[recession]], an economy usually experiences a relatively high unemployment rate.<ref>The Saylor Foundation. "Unemployment Rate." pp. 1 [http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/SAYLOR.ORG-ECON102-UNEMPLOYMENT-RATE.pdf] Retrieved 20 June 2012</ref> According to [[International Labour Organization]] report, more than 197 million people globally are out of work or 6% of the world's workforce were without a job in 2012.<ref>{{cite web
|url        = http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/---publ/documents/publication/wcms_202326.pdf
|title      = Global employment trends 2013
|date      = 21 January 2013
|format    = PDF
|work      = [[International Labour Organization]]
}}</ref>


There remains considerable theoretical debate regarding the causes, consequences and solutions for unemployment. [[Classical economics]], [[New classical economics]], and the [[Austrian School]] of economics argue that market mechanisms are reliable means of resolving unemployment. [[Unemployment types#Classical unemployment|These theories]] argue against interventions imposed on the labor market from the outside, such as unionization, bureaucratic work rules, [[minimum wage law]]s, taxes, and other regulations that they claim discourage the hiring of workers.
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[[Unemployment types#Cyclical or Keynesian unemployment|Keynesian economics]] emphasizes the cyclical nature of unemployment and recommends government interventions in the economy that it claims will reduce unemployment during recessions.  This theory focuses on recurrent [[Shock (economics)|shocks]] that suddenly reduce [[aggregate demand]] for goods and services and thus reduce demand for workers. Keynesian models recommend government interventions designed to increase demand for workers; these can include financial stimuli, publicly funded job creation, and expansionist monetary policies. [[John Maynard Keynes|Keynes]] believed that the root cause of unemployment is the desire of investors to receive more money rather than produce more products, which is not possible without public bodies producing new money.<ref>[http://future-finance.org/chapter/the-role-of-money-in-the-economy/why-money-matters/ "Why Money Matters"] Retrieved 20 August 2013.</ref>
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In addition to these comprehensive theories of unemployment, there are a few categorizations of unemployment that are used to more precisely model the effects of unemployment within the economic system. The main types of unemployment include [[Unemployment types#Structural unemployment|structural unemployment]] which focuses on structural problems in the economy and inefficiencies inherent in labour markets, including a mismatch between the supply and demand of laborers with necessary skill sets. Structural arguments emphasize causes and solutions related to [[disruptive technology|disruptive technologies]] and [[globalization]]. Discussions of [[frictional unemployment]] focus on voluntary decisions to work based on each individuals' valuation of their own work and how that compares to current wage rates plus the time and effort required to find a job. Causes and solutions for frictional unemployment often address job entry threshold and wage rates. [[Behavioral economics|Behavioral economists]] highlight individual biases in decision making, and often involve problems and solutions concerning [[sticky wages]] and [[efficiency wages]].
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==Definitions, types, and theories==
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Economists distinguish between various overlapping '''types of and theories of unemployment''', including [[#Cyclical or Keynesian theory of unemployment|cyclical or Keynesian unemployment]], [[frictional unemployment]], [[structural unemployment]] and [[classical unemployment]].<ref>{{cite book |last=O'Sullivan |first=Arthur |title=Economics: Principles in Action |year=2003 |publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall |isbn=0-13-063085-3 |page=330 |first2=Steven M. |last2=Sheffrin |location=Upper Saddle River, NJ }}</ref> Some additional types of unemployment that are occasionally mentioned are seasonal unemployment, hardcore unemployment, and hidden unemployment. The U.S. BLS measures six types of unemployment, [[#United States Bureau of Labor statistics|U1–U6]].


Though there have been several definitions of "voluntary" and "[[involuntary unemployment]]" in the economics literature, a simple distinction is often applied. Voluntary unemployment is attributed to the individual's decisions, whereas involuntary unemployment exists because of the socio-economic environment (including the market structure, government intervention, and the level of aggregate demand) in which individuals operate. In these terms, much or most of [[frictional unemployment]] is voluntary, since it reflects individual search behavior. Voluntary unemployment includes workers who reject low wage jobs whereas involuntary unemployment includes workers fired due to an economic crisis, industrial decline, company bankruptcy, or organizational restructuring.
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On the other hand, cyclical unemployment, structural unemployment, and classical unemployment are largely involuntary in nature. However, the existence of structural unemployment may reflect choices made by the unemployed in the past, while classical (natural) unemployment may result from the legislative and economic choices made by labour unions or political parties. So, in practice, the distinction between voluntary and involuntary unemployment is hard to draw.
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The clearest cases of involuntary unemployment are those where there are fewer job vacancies than unemployed workers even when wages are allowed to adjust, so that even if all vacancies were to be filled, some unemployed workers would still remain. This happens with cyclical unemployment, as macroeconomic forces cause microeconomic unemployment which can boomerang back and exacerbate these macroeconomic forces.
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===Classical unemployment===
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[[File:Wage labour.svg|Graph of Labor Market|thumb]]
Classical or real-wage unemployment occurs when real wages for a job are set above the [[market-clearing]] level, causing the number of job-seekers to exceed the number of vacancies.


Many economists have argued that unemployment increases the more the government intervenes into the economy to try to improve the conditions of those without jobs.{{Citation needed|date=September 2011}} For example, [[minimum wage]] laws raise the cost of laborers with few skills to above the market equilibrium, resulting in people who wish to work at the going rate but cannot as wage enforced is greater than their value as workers becoming unemployed.<ref>{{cite book |first=F. A. |last=Hayek |title=The Constitution of Liberty |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1960 |isbn= |pages= }}</ref><ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite book |first=Alain |last=Anderton |title=Economics |edition=Fourth |year=2006 |location=Ormskirk |publisher=Causeway |edition=Fourth |isbn=1-902796-92-6 }}</ref> Laws restricting layoffs made businesses less likely to hire in the first place, as hiring becomes more risky, leaving many young people unemployed and unable to find work.<ref name="autogenerated2" />
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However, this argument is criticized for ignoring numerous external factors and overly simplifying the relationship between wage rates and unemployment&nbsp;– in other words, that other factors may also affect unemployment.<ref name="P. Garegnani 1970">{{cite journal |first=P. |last=Garegnani |title=Heterogeneous Capital, the Production Function and the Theory of Distribution |journal=[[Review of Economic Studies]] |volume=37 |issue=3 |year=1970 |pages=407–436 |jstor=2296729 }}</ref><ref name="Robert L. Vienneau 2005">{{cite journal |first=Robert L. |last=Vienneau |title=On Labour Demand and Equilibria of the Firm |journal=[[The Manchester School (journal)|The Manchester School]] |volume=73 |issue=5 |year=2005 |pages=612–619 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9957.2005.00467.x }}</ref><ref name="Ian Steedman 2009">{{cite journal |first=Arrigo |last=Opocher |first2=Ian |last2=Steedman |title=Input Price-Input Quantity Relations and the Numéraire |journal=[[Cambridge Journal of Economics]] |volume=3 |year=2009 |issue=5 |pages=937–948 |doi=10.1093/cje/bep005 }}</ref><ref name="Wyne Godley 1989">{{cite journal |first=Michael |last=Anyadike-Danes |first2=Wyne |last2=Godley |title=Real Wages and Employment: A Skeptical View of Some Recent Empirical Work |journal=[[The Manchester School (journal)|The Manchester School]] |volume=62 |issue=2 |year=1989 |pages=172–187 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9957.1989.tb00809.x }}</ref><ref name="Graham White 2001">{{cite journal |first=Graham |last=White |title=The Poverty of Conventional Economic Wisdom and the Search for Alternative Economic and Social Policies |journal=The Drawing Board: An Australian Review of Public Affairs |volume=2 |issue=2 |year=2001 |pages=67–87 |doi= |url=http://www.australianreview.net/journal/v2/n2/white.html }}</ref> Some, such as [[Murray Rothbard]], suggest that even social taboos can prevent wages from falling to the market-clearing level.<ref>{{cite book |first=Murray |last=Rothbard |title=[[America's Great Depression]] |location=Princeton |publisher=Van Nostrand |year=1963 |page=45 }}</ref>
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In ''Out of Work: Unemployment and Government in the Twentieth-Century America'', economists [[Richard Vedder]] and Lowell Gallaway argue that the empirical record of wages rates, productivity, and unemployment in American validates the classical unemployment theory. Their data shows a strong correlation between the adjusted real wage and unemployment in the United States from 1900 to 1990. However, they maintain that their data does not take into account [[exogeny|exogenous events]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Richard |last=Vedder |first2=Lowell |last2=Gallaway |title=Out of Work: Unemployment and Government in the Twentieth-Century America |location=New York |publisher=NYU Press |year=1997 |isbn=0-8147-8792-4 }}</ref>
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===Cyclical unemployment===
== Lut rådede dem Timberland Agentur Danmark ==
[[File:Islm.svg|thumb|right|The ''[[IS-LM Model]]'' is used to analyze the effect of demand shocks on the economy.]]Cyclical, deficient-demand, or [[Keynesian economics|Keynesian]] unemployment, occurs when there is not enough aggregate demand in the economy to provide jobs for everyone who wants to work. Demand for most goods and services falls, less production is needed and consequently fewer workers are needed, wages are sticky and do not fall to meet the equilibrium level, and mass unemployment results.<ref name="Keynes 2007">{{cite book |title=The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money |last=Keynes |first=John Maynard |year=2007 |origyear=1936 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |location=Basingstoke, Hampshire |isbn=0-230-00476-8 |url=http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/essays/keynes/keynescont.htm }}</ref> Its name is derived from the frequent shifts in the [[business cycle]] although unemployment can also be persistent as occurred during the [[Great Depression]] of the 1930s.


With cyclical unemployment, the number of unemployed workers exceeds the number of job vacancies, so that even if [[full employment]] were attained and all open jobs were filled, some workers would still remain unemployed. Some associate cyclical unemployment with frictional unemployment because the factors that cause the friction are partially caused by cyclical variables. For example, a surprise decrease in the money supply may [[supply shock|shock]] rational economic factors and suddenly inhibit aggregate demand.
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[[Keynesian]] economists on the other hand see the lack of demand for jobs as potentially resolvable by government intervention. One suggested interventions involves [[deficit spending]] to boost employment and demand. Another intervention involves an expansionary [[monetary policy]] that increases the supply of money which should reduce [[interest rates]] which should lead to an increase in non-governmental spending.<ref>
== " sagde han 99U. Parajumpers På Salg ==
{{cite book
|first = Seymour E.
|last=Harris
|title=The New Economics: Keynes' Influence on Theory and Public Policy
|year=2005
|isbn=1-4191-4534-7
|publisher= Kessinger Publishing}}
</ref>


===Marxian theory of unemployment===
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{{Quotation|It is in the very nature of the [[capitalist mode of production]] to overwork some workers while keeping the rest as a [[reserve army of labour|reserve army]] of unemployed paupers.|Marx|Theory of Surplus Value|<ref name="Marx 1863 478 or at MEW, 26.3, 300"/>}}
 
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Marxists also share the Keynesian viewpoint of the relationship between economic demand and employment, but with the caveat that the market system's propensity to slash wages and reduce labor participation on an enterprise level causes a requisite decrease in aggregate demand in the economy as a whole, causing crises of unemployment and periods of low economic activity before the capital accumulation (investment) phase of economic growth can continue.
== Roxie Beckles Beats By Dre Danmark Fona ==


According to [[Karl Marx]], unemployment is inherent within the unstable capitalist system and periodic crises of mass unemployment are to be expected. The function of the [[proletariat]] within the capitalist system is to provide a "[[reserve army of labour]]" that creates downward pressure on wages.  This is accomplished by dividing the proletariat into surplus labour (employees) and under-employment (unemployed).<ref>Marx, Karl (2009). Capital: An Abridged Edition. Edited by David McLellan, Oxford Paperbacks, Oxford, UK. ISBN 978-0-19-953570-5.</ref> This [[reserve army of labour]] fight among themselves for scarce jobs at lower and lower wages.
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At first glance, unemployment seems inefficient since unemployed workers do not increase profits. However, unemployment is profitable within the global capitalist system because unemployment lowers wages which are costs from the perspective of the owners. From this perspective low wages benefit the system by reducing [[economic rent]]s. Yet, it does not benefit workers. Capitalist systems unfairly manipulate the market for labour by perpetuating unemployment which lowers laborers' demands for fair wages. Workers are pitted against one another at the service of increasing profits for owners.
== sagde han Timberland Boots Kids ==


According to Marx, the only way to permanently eliminate unemployment would be to abolish capitalism and the system of forced competition for wages and then shift to a socialist or communist economic system. For contemporary Marxists, the existence of persistent unemployment is proof of the inability of capitalism to ensure full employment.<ref>{{cite web|last=Marx|first=Karl|title=The Communist Manifesto|url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/communist-manifesto/index.htm|accessdate=22 October 2010}}</ref>
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  <li>[http://www.wszqlt.com/home.php?mod=space&uid=11868&do=blog&quickforward=1&id=693926 http://www.wszqlt.com/home.php?mod=space&uid=11868&do=blog&quickforward=1&id=693926]</li>
 
  <li>[http://www.proyectoalba.com.ar/spip.php?article66/ http://www.proyectoalba.com.ar/spip.php?article66/]</li>
 
  <li>[http://www.film-video-dvd-production.com/spip.php?article6/ http://www.film-video-dvd-production.com/spip.php?article6/]</li>
 
  <li>[http://qualitynationblog.com/activity/p/52455/ http://qualitynationblog.com/activity/p/52455/]</li>
 
</ul>


===Full employment===
== Colorado Nike Air Max Thea ==
{{Main|Full employment}}
[[File:NAIRU-SR-and-LR.svg|thumb|right|Short-Run [[Phillips Curve]] before and after Expansionary Policy, with Long-Run Phillips Curve (NAIRU). Note, however, that the unemployment rate is an inaccurate predictor of inflation in the long term.<ref name=chang/><ref name=hossfeld/>]]


In demand-based theory, it is possible to abolish cyclical unemployment by increasing the aggregate demand for products and workers. However, eventually the economy hits an "[[inflation]] barrier" imposed by the four other kinds of unemployment to the extent that they exist. Historical experience suggests that low unemployment affects inflation in the short term but not the long term.<ref name=chang>Chang, R. (1997) [https://www.frbatlanta.org/filelegacydocs/ACFC7.pdf "Is Low Unemployment Inflationary?"] ''Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta Economic Review'' 1Q97:4-13</ref> In the long term, the [[velocity of money]] supply measures such as the MZM ("money zero maturity," representing cash and equivalent [[demand deposit]]s) velocity is far more predictive of inflation than low unemployment.<ref name=hossfeld>Oliver Hossfeld (2010) [http://www.hhl.de/fileadmin/texte/publikationen/forschungspapiere/HOSSFELD_USMONEY_INFERWP_2010-4.pdf "US Money Demand, Monetary Overhang, and Inflation Prediction"] ''International Network for Economic Research'' working paper no. 2010.4</ref><ref>[http://research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/series/MZMV MZM velocity]</ref>
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  <li>[http://www.achicourtautrement.fr/spip.php?article451/ http://www.achicourtautrement.fr/spip.php?article451/]</li>
 
  <li>[http://jsyccc.com/forum.php?mod=viewthread&tid=1630025 http://jsyccc.com/forum.php?mod=viewthread&tid=1630025]</li>
 
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</ul>


Some demand theory economists see the inflation barrier as corresponding to the [[natural rate of unemployment]]. The "natural" rate of unemployment is defined as the rate of unemployment that exists when the labour market is in equilibrium and there is pressure for neither rising inflation rates nor falling inflation rates. An alternative technical term for this rate is the [[NAIRU]] or the Non-Accelerating Inflation Rate of Unemployment. No matter what its name, demand theory holds that this means that if the unemployment rate gets "too low," inflation will accelerate in the absence of wage and price controls (incomes policies).
== "Jeg vil være klar til at lytte Parajumpers Kodiak Menn ==


One of the major problems with the [[NAIRU]] theory is that no one knows exactly what the NAIRU is (while it clearly changes over time).<ref name=chang/> The margin of error can be quite high relative to the actual unemployment rate, making it hard to use the NAIRU in policy-making.<ref name=hossfeld/>
Men Dychtwald siger demografiske ændringer landets betyder logikken holder ikke længere op. Definitionen af ​​terrorisme efter de relevante bestemmelser i engelsk ret synes at gælde for denne sag, men igen, vil det være for en dommer at afgøre .. Diabetes specialister enige om, at fordi blodsukkermålinger dips og spikes er intimt knyttet til carb forbrug, omhyggeligt valg og begrænse nogle kulhydrater er vigtig ... <br><br>Hun fik sit kørekort sidste fredag. Målet med denne metode er at hjælpe den enkelte ansigt deres frygt og indse, at frygten objektet ikke vil skade dem .. Du er nødt til at arbejde inden for en ramme for corporate .. På nuværende Ontario regering bruger mere end $ 12,000 per elev på primær og grundskole. Jun 22, 2011 Afregning af en uncontacted indfødt stamme i Javari Valley, Brasilien. Vi fandt en lokal grøn rengøring virksomhed, der starter nye kunder fra ved "dyb rengøring" hele hjemmet ikke én gang, men to gange i løbet af deres første besøg (for at få, hvad nasties løsne op og re cirkulerer i første sweep).. <br><br>Jeg vil ikke komme ind på detaljerne i skaden. Når dit barn er i stand til at have kontrol over hoved, som er en af ​​de første tegn på, at de er i stand til at introducere fast føde til deres kost. Holmes, hurtigt sporet Utah appel, men de sagde, de ville ikke stoppe ægteskaber i mellemtiden skriftligt, at staten ville have en hård tid at bevise, at lade ægteskaber gå videre vil medføre "uoprettelig skade", eller at den havde et godt skud . <br><br>Konkurs Court [http://www.fiskefoto.dk/Styles/setting.asp?p=106-Parajumpers-Kodiak-Menn Parajumpers Kodiak Menn] for District of Delaware i første kvartal af 2014. "Hun legede med sine børn, og hvis de kom i problemer, ville hun rulle op hendes ærme og sige, 'Sig det til armen," sagde Byrne .. I en fantastisk forræderi inden for en familie, hvor top politisk aide Rove er royalty har Bushies været sneering på hans pre valget glad snak om, at den filippinske regering ville holde Senatet og [http://www.jvhenergyconsult.dk/articles/upload.asp?ArticleID=33-Nike-Roshe-Run-Woven Nike Roshe Run Woven] tage en lille hit i Parlamentet, både hurtigt at blive kørt af Demokraterne . <br><br>Så hun åbnede sættet med stor forventning, kun for at opdage hurtigt, at hun fandt de tre dufte alle at være "så grov, at de [http://www.gej.dk/buildgreen/modules/openid/install.asp?a=15-Hollister-Tøj Hollister Tøj] giver mig hovedpine.". Der kan også være nogle klare dræning kommer fra midtpunktet i det bid. Sid med ham [http://www.regionlillebaelt.dk/logs/framework.php?id=88-New-Balance-Udsalg-410 New Balance Udsalg 410] på kantsten eller i din bil, og sige, "Jeg vil være klar til at lytte, når du holder op med at græde." . <br><br>De dømme ting, der nemt kan måles og rote lært. Husk, at dette agentur kun administrerer testen. Desuden efterforskerne identificeret to delmængder, en gruppe, der havde den maksimale eksponering for vacciner i løbet af deres første syv måneder af livet, og sammenlignet dem med en matchet rettidig gruppe, der havde, tro mod deres navn, mindst rettidig udsættelse for vacciner og modtaget .<ul>
 
 
Another, normative, definition of full employment might be called the ''ideal'' unemployment rate. It would exclude all types of unemployment that represent forms of inefficiency. This type of "full employment" unemployment would correspond to only frictional unemployment (excluding that part encouraging the [[McJobs]] management strategy) and would thus be very low. However, it would be impossible to attain this full-employment target using only demand-side [[Keynesian]] stimulus without getting below the [[NAIRU]] and causing accelerating inflation (absent incomes policies). Training programs aimed at fighting structural unemployment would help here.
  <li>[http://hemanjosko.in/activity/p/157929/ http://hemanjosko.in/activity/p/157929/]</li>
 
 
To the extent that hidden unemployment exists, it implies that official unemployment statistics provide a poor guide to what unemployment rate coincides with "full employment".<ref name=chang/>
  <li>[http://www.sebalo.info/spip/spip.php?article13 http://www.sebalo.info/spip/spip.php?article13]</li>
 
 
===Structural unemployment===
  <li>[http://test.bpmn.info/forum/read.php?1,268072 http://test.bpmn.info/forum/read.php?1,268072]</li>
{{Main|Structural unemployment}}
 
[[File:Okuns law quarterly differences.svg|thumb|[[Okun's Law]] interprets unemployment as a function of the rate of growth in GDP.]]
  <li>[http://www.philatelie-france-russie.fr/spip.php?article51/ http://www.philatelie-france-russie.fr/spip.php?article51/]</li>
[[Structural unemployment]] occurs when a labour market is unable to provide jobs for everyone who wants one because there is a mismatch between the skills of the unemployed workers and the skills needed for the available jobs. Structural unemployment is hard to separate empirically from frictional unemployment, except to say that it lasts longer. As with frictional unemployment, simple demand-side stimulus will not work to easily abolish this type of unemployment.
 
 
</ul>
Structural unemployment may also be encouraged to rise by persistent cyclical unemployment: if an economy suffers from long-lasting low aggregate demand, it means that many of the unemployed become disheartened, while their skills (including [[job hunting|job-searching]] skills) become "rusty" and obsolete. Problems with debt may lead to [[homelessness]] and a fall into the vicious circle of poverty.
 
This means that they may not fit the job vacancies that are created when the economy recovers. The implication is that sustained ''high'' demand may ''lower'' structural unemployment. This theory of persistence in structural unemployment has been referred to as an example of [[path dependence]] or "hysteresis".
 
Much ''[[technological unemployment]]'',<ref name="Jerome 1934"/> due to the replacement of workers by machines, might be counted as structural unemployment. Alternatively, technological unemployment might refer to the way in which steady increases in labour productivity mean that fewer workers are needed to produce the same level of output every year. The fact that aggregate demand can be raised to deal with this problem suggests that this problem is instead one of cyclical unemployment. As indicated by [[Okun's Law]], the demand side must grow sufficiently quickly to absorb not only the growing labour force but also the workers made redundant by increased labour productivity.
 
Seasonal unemployment may be seen as a kind of structural unemployment, since it is a type of unemployment that is linked to certain kinds of [[Job (role)|jobs]] (construction work, migratory farm work). The most-cited official unemployment measures erase this kind of unemployment from the statistics using "seasonal adjustment" techniques. The resulting in substantial, permanent structural unemployment.
 
===Frictional unemployment===
{{Main|Frictional unemployment}}
[[File:US beveridge 2004 through fall 2010.gif|thumb|The [[Beveridge curve]] of 2004 [[vacancy (economics)|job vacancy]] and unemployment rate from the United States Bureau of Labour Statistics.]]
 
Frictional unemployment is the time period between jobs when a worker is [[search theory|searching]] for, or transitioning from one job to another. It is sometimes called search unemployment and can be voluntary based on the circumstances of the unemployed individual. Frictional unemployment is always present in an economy, so the level of involuntary unemployment is properly the unemployment rate minus the rate of frictional unemployment, which means that increases or decreases in unemployment are normally under-represented in the simple statistics.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://econlog.econlib.org/archives/2009/05/quiggan_takes_m.html |title=Quiggin Takes My Euro-Bet, Bryan Caplan &#124; Library of Economics and Liberty |publisher=Econlog.econlib.org |date=28 May 2009 |accessdate=25 March 2010}}</ref>
 
Frictional unemployment exists because both jobs and workers are [[Heterogeneous agents|heterogeneous]], and a mismatch can result between the characteristics of supply and demand. Such a mismatch can be related to skills, payment, work-time, location, seasonal industries, attitude, taste, and a multitude of other factors. New entrants (such as graduating students) and re-entrants (such as former homemakers) can also suffer a spell of frictional unemployment.
 
Workers as well as employers accept a certain level of imperfection, risk or compromise, but usually not right away; they will invest some time and effort to find a better match. This is in fact beneficial to the economy since it results in a better allocation of resources. However, if the search takes too long and mismatches are too frequent, the economy suffers, since some work will not get done. Therefore, governments will seek ways to reduce unnecessary frictional unemployment through multiple means including providing education, advice, training, and assistance such as [[daycare center]]s.
 
The frictions in the [[labour market]] are sometimes illustrated graphically with a [[Beveridge curve]], a downward-sloping, convex curve that shows a correlation between the unemployment rate on one axis and the vacancy rate on the other. Changes in the supply of or demand for labour cause movements along this curve. An increase (decrease) in labour market frictions will shift the curve outwards (inwards).
 
===Hidden unemployment===
Hidden, or covered, unemployment is the unemployment of potential workers that is not reflected in official unemployment statistics, due to the way the statistics are collected. In many countries only those who have no work but are actively looking for work (and/or qualifying for social security benefits) are counted as unemployed. Those who have given up looking for work (and sometimes those who are on Government "retraining" programs) are not officially counted among the unemployed, even though they are not employed. The exception is in places like Australia where the real IDU (International Definition of Unemployment) rate is approx 28% and the declared rate is approx 4%. In this instance the actual definition of unemployment was altered in 1974 to ignore 1) anyone who had a wife who worked 2) anyone who had money in the bank and 3) anyone who worked more than 2 hours a week in part-time work.  The ACTU measured Australian jobs in 2010 and observed that 40% of jobs Australia wide were casual or part-time. One could observe that the Australian economy is actually a basket case and the distorted IDU rate has the population oblivious to the economic calamity that is not recorded in the absence of work. To back up this observation the ASIC figures show that the average Australian business employs 0.9 (zero point nine) people whereas the average in the UK is 45. To say the real figures have been hidden is an understatement. The same applies to those who have taken [[early retirement]] to avoid being laid off, but would prefer to be working. As well, persons on [[disability benefits]] do not count as unemployed.<ref>http://apps.npr.org/unfit-for-work/</ref>
 
The statistic also does not count the "[[underemployment|underemployed]]"&nbsp;– those working fewer hours than they would prefer or in a job that doesn't make good use of their capabilities. In addition, those who are of working age but are currently in full-time education are usually not considered unemployed in government statistics. Traditional unemployed native societies who survive by gathering, hunting, herding, and farming in wilderness areas, may or may not be counted in unemployment statistics. Official statistics often underestimate unemployment rates because of hidden unemployment.
 
[[File:US average duration of unemployment.png|thumb|United States mean duration of unemployment (1950–2010).]]
 
===Long-term unemployment===
This is normally defined, for instance in [[European Union]] statistics, as unemployment lasting for longer than one year. It is an important indicator of [[social exclusion]]. The United States [[Bureau of Labor Statistics]] (BLS) reports this as 27 weeks or longer. Long-term unemployment can result in older workers taking [[Retirement#Early retirement|early retirement]]; in the United States, taking [[Social Security (United States)#Normal retirement age|reduced social security benefits at age 62]].<ref name=NYT62>{{cite news|title=Forced to Early Social Security, Unemployed Pay a Steep Price|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/10/business/forced-to-retire-early-jobless-pay-a-steep-price.html|accessdate=10 June 2012|newspaper=The New York Times|date=9 June 2012|author=Motoko Rich}}</ref>
 
==Measurement==
There are also different ways national statistical agencies measure unemployment.  These differences may limit the validity of international comparisons of unemployment data.<ref>[http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2000/06/art1full.pdf International Unemployment Rates: How Comparable are They?]" by Constance Sorrentino, Monthly Labor Review, June 2000, pp. 3–20.</ref> To some degree these differences remain despite national statistical agencies increasingly adopting the definition of unemployment by the International Labour Organization.<ref name="ilo.org">International Labour Organization Bureau of Statistics [http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---integration/---stat/documents/publication/wcms_088394.pdf Measurement of employment, unemployment and underemployment&nbsp;– Current international standards and issues in their application].  Retrieved August 2010</ref> To facilitate international comparisons, some organizations, such as the [[Oecd#Statistics|OECD]], [[Eurostat]], and [[Division of international labor comparisons|International Labor Comparisons Program]], adjust data on unemployment for comparability across countries.
 
Though many people care about the number of unemployed individuals, economists typically focus on the unemployment rate. This corrects for the normal increase in the number of people employed due to increases in population and increases in the labour force relative to the population. The unemployment rate is expressed as a [[percentage]], and is calculated as follows:
 
:<math>\text{Unemployment rate}=\frac{\text{Unemployed workers}}{\text{Total labor force}} * 100</math>
 
As defined by the [[International Labour Organization]], "unemployed workers" are those who are currently not working but are willing and able to work for pay, currently available to work, and have actively searched for work.<ref>International Labour Organization, Bureau of Statistics,[http://www.ilo.org/public/english/bureau/stat/download/res/ecacpop.pdf The Thirteenth International Conference of Labour Statisticians], received 21 July 2007</ref>
Individuals who are actively seeking job placement must make the effort to: be in contact with an employer, have job interviews, contact job placement agencies, send out resumes, submit applications, respond to advertisements, or some other means of active job searching within the prior four weeks.  Simply looking at advertisements and not responding will not count as actively seeking job placement. Since not all unemployment may be "open" and counted by government agencies, official statistics on unemployment may not be accurate.<ref name="sfgate.com">{{cite news|first=Sam |last=Zuckerman |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2002/11/17/BU239666.DTL |title=Official unemployment numbers omit discouraged seekers, part-time workers |work=San Francisco Chronicle |date=17 November 2002 |accessdate=27 July 2011}}</ref> In the United States, for example, the unemployment rate does not take into consideration those individuals who are not actively looking for employment, such as those still attending college.<ref>Coy, P. (2012 September 11). U.S. jobless rate drops for the worst of all reasons. Businessweek.Com, 5. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/</ref>
 
The [[International Labour Organization|ILO]] describes 4 different methods to calculate the unemployment rate:<ref>International Labour Organization, LABORSTA,[http://laborsta.ilo.org/applv8/data/c3e.html]. Retrieved 22 July 2007.</ref>
* ''Labour Force Sample Surveys'' are the most preferred method of unemployment rate calculation since they give the most comprehensive results and enables calculation of unemployment by different group categories such as race and gender. This method is the most internationally comparable.
* ''Official Estimates'' are determined by a combination of information from one or more of the other three methods. The use of this method has been declining in favor of Labour Surveys.
* ''Social Insurance Statistics'' such as unemployment benefits, are computed base on the number of persons insured representing the total labour force and the number of persons who are insured that are collecting benefits. This method has been heavily criticized due to the expiration of benefits before the person finds work.
* ''Employment Office Statistics'' are the least effective being that they only include a monthly tally of unemployed persons who enter employment offices. This method also includes unemployed who are not unemployed per the [[International Labour Organization|ILO]] definition.
 
The primary measure of unemployment, U3, allows for comparisons between countries.  Unemployment differs from country to country and across different time periods. For example, during the 1990s and 2000s, the United States had lower unemployment levels than many countries in the [[European Union]],<ref>Schmitt, John; Rho, Hye Jin; Fremstad, Shawn. [http://www.cepr.net/documents/publications/US-EU-UR-2009-05.pdf U.S. Unemployment Now As High as Europe.] Center for Economic and Policy Research. May 2009.</ref> which had significant internal variation, with countries like the UK and [[Denmark]] outperforming [[Italy]] and France. However, large economic events such as the [[Great Depression]] can lead to similar unemployment rates across the globe.
 
===European Union (Eurostat)===
{{Further|List of sovereign states in Europe by unemployment rate}}
[[File:RegionalUnemploymentEurope2010.png|thumb|Unemployment in the regions of the European Union in 2010, according to Eurostat.]]
[[File:Unemployment rate United states - Europe 1993-2009.svg|thumb|Unemployment rates from 1993–2009 for United States and [[European Union]].]]
 
[[Eurostat]], the statistical office of the [[European Union]], defines unemployed as those persons age 15 to 74 who are not working, have looked for work in the last four weeks, and ready to start work within two weeks, which conform to [[International Labour Organization|ILO]] standards. Both the actual count and rate of unemployment are reported. Statistical data are available by member state, for the European Union as a whole (EU27) as well as for the euro area (EA16). Eurostat also includes a long-term unemployment rate. This is defined as part of the unemployed who have been unemployed for an excess of 1 year.<ref>Marco Giugni, ed. ''The Contentious Politics of Unemployment in Europe: Welfare States and Political Opportunities''(Palgrave Macmillan; 2011) covers Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Sweden, and Switzerland.</ref>
 
The main source used is the European Union Labour Force Survey (EU-LFS). The EU-LFS collects data on all member states each quarter. For monthly calculations, national surveys or national registers from employment offices are used in conjunction with quarterly EU-LFS data. The exact calculation for individual countries, resulting in harmonized monthly data, depend on the availability of the data.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_SDDS/EN/une_esms.htm|title=European Commission, Eurostat|accessdate=5 November 2009}}</ref>
 
===United States Bureau of Labor statistics===
{{See also|Unemployment in the United States}}
 
[[File:USA 2008 unemployment by county.svg|thumb|Unemployment rate in the U.S. by county in 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=ftp://ftp.bls.gov/pub/special.requests/la/laucnty08.txt|title=Labor force data by county, 2008 annual averages|author=Bureau of Labor Statistics|year=2009}}</ref> {{col-begin}}{{col-break}}{{legend|#0000ff|1.2–3%}}{{legend|#00dddd|3.1–4%}}{{legend|#00ffaa|4.1–5%}}{{col-break}}{{legend|#00ff00|5.1–6%}}{{legend|#77cc00|6.1–7%}}{{legend|#ffff00|7.1–8%}}{{col-break}}{{legend|#ffaa00|8.1–9%}}{{legend|#ff0000|9.1–10%}}{{legend|#ff00aa|10.1–11%}}{{col-break}}{{legend|#666666|11.1–13%}}{{legend|#000000|13.1–22.9%}}{{col-end}}]]
 
The Bureau of Labor Statistics measures employment and unemployment (of those over 15 years of age) using two different labour force surveys<ref>United States, Bureau of Labor Statistics,[http://www.bls.gov/cps/cps_faq.htm]. Retrieved 23 July 2007.</ref> conducted by the [[United States Census Bureau]] (within the [[United States Department of Commerce]]) and/or the Bureau of Labor Statistics (within the [[United States Department of Labor]]) that gather employment statistics monthly. The [[Current Population Survey]] (CPS), or "Household Survey", conducts a survey based on a sample of 60,000 households. This Survey measures the unemployment rate based on the [[International Labour Organization|ILO]] definition.<ref>U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, [http://www.bls.gov/cps/cps_over.htm#overview Current Population Survey overview]. Retrieved 25 May 2007.</ref>
 
The Current Employment Statistics survey (CES), or "Payroll Survey", conducts a survey based on a sample of 160,000 businesses and government agencies that represent 400,000 individual employers.<ref name=c>U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, "[http://www.bls.gov/news.release/archives/empsit_02012008.pdf The Employment Situation: January 2008]", January 2008</ref> This survey measures only civilian nonagricultural employment; thus, it does not calculate an unemployment rate, and it differs from the ILO unemployment rate definition. These two sources have different classification criteria, and usually produce differing results. Additional data are also available from the government, such as the unemployment insurance weekly claims report available from the Office of Workforce Security, within the U.S. Department of Labor Employment & Training Administration.<ref>U.S. Department of Labor, Employment & Training Administration, Office of Workforce Security, [http://workforcesecurity.doleta.gov/unemploy/claims_arch.asp UI Weekly Claims]</ref> The Bureau of Labor Statistics provides up-to-date numbers via a PDF linked here.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bls.gov/news.release/archives/empsit_03052010.pdf |title=The Employment Situation: February 2010 |format=PDF |accessdate=16 December 2010}}</ref>  The BLS also provides a readable concise current Employment Situation Summary, updated monthly.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.bls.gov/news.release/empsit.nr0.htm |title=Employment Situation Summary |publisher=Bureau of Labor Statistics |date=8 July 2011 |accessdate=27 July 2011}}</ref>
[[File:US Unemployment measures.svg|thumb|U1–U6 from 1950–2010, as reported by the Bureau of Labor Statistics]]
 
The Bureau of Labor Statistics also calculates six alternate measures of unemployment, U1 through U6, that measure different aspects of unemployment:<ref>U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Table A-15. Alternative measures of labour underutilization Retrieved 5 August 2010.</ref>
* U1:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bls.gov/webapps/legacy/cpsatab15.htm |title=Labor Force Statistics (CPS), Alternative Measures U-1 through U-6 |publisher=Bureau of Labor Statistics |date=6 January 2012 |accessdate=6 January 2012}}</ref> Percentage of labor force unemployed 15 weeks or longer.
* U2: Percentage of labor force who lost jobs or completed temporary work.
* U3: Official '''unemployment rate''' per the [[International Labour Organization|ILO]] definition occurs when people are without jobs and they have actively looked for [[Wage labor|work]] within the past four weeks.<ref name="a"/>
* U4: U3 + "[[discouraged workers]]", or those who have stopped looking for work because current economic conditions make them believe that no work is available for them.
* U5: U4 + other "marginally attached workers", or "loosely attached workers", or those who "would like" and are able to work, but have not looked for work recently.
* U6: U5 + Part-time workers who want to work full-time, but cannot due to economic reasons ([[underemployment]]).
''Note: "Marginally attached workers" are added to the total labour force for unemployment rate calculation for U4, U5, and U6.'' The [[Current Population Survey#1994 CPS Revisions|BLS revised the CPS in 1994]] and among the changes the measure representing the official unemployment rate was renamed U3 instead of U5.<ref>{{cite web |first=John E. |last=Bregger |first2=Steven E. |last2=Haugen |year=1995 |title=BLS introduces new range of alternative unemployment measures |work=Monthly Labor Review, October: 19–29 |url=http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/1995/10/art3full.pdf |publisher=U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics |accessdate=6 March 2009 }}</ref> In 2013, Representative [[Duncan D. Hunter|Hunter]] proposed that the Bureau of Labor Statistics use the U5 rate instead of the current U3 rate.<ref>{{cite news |title=Rep. Hunter Seeks to Change Jobless Reporting Method |author=Honathan Horn |url=http://m.utsandiego.com/news/2013/apr/24/tp-rep-hunter-seeks-to-change-jobless-reporting/ |newspaper=San Diego Union Tribune |date=24 April 2013 |accessdate=23 June 2013}}<br />{{cite news |title=GOP lawmaker calls for change to how government measures unemployment |author=Molly K. Hooper |url=http://thehill.com/homenews/house/220457-gop-lawmaker-calls-for-change-to-how-government-measures-unemployment- |newspaper=The Hill |date=8 April 2012 |accessdate=23 June 2013}}<br />{{cite news |title=The Unemployment Rate Is a Farce That Needs Fixing: Rep. Duncan Hunter |author=Matt Nesto |url=http://finance.yahoo.com/blogs/breakout/unemployment-rate-farce-needs-fixing-rep-duncan-hunter-113437674.html |newspaper=Yahoo! Finance |date=2 August 2012 |accessdate=23 June 2013}}</ref>
 
Statistics for the U.S. economy as a whole hide variations among groups. For example, in January 2008 U.S. unemployment rates were 4.4% for adult men, 4.2% for adult women, 4.4% for Caucasians, 6.3% for Hispanics or Latinos (all races), 9.2% for African Americans, 3.2% for Asian Americans, and 18.0% for teenagers.<ref name=c/> Also, the U.S. unemployment rate would be at least 2% higher if prisoners and jail inmates were counted.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.justicepolicy.org/images/upload/00-05_REP_PunishingDecade_AC.pdf |title=The Punishing Decade: Prison and Jail Estimates at the Millennium |publisher=Justice Policy Institute |date=May 2000 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=How Unregulated Is the U.S. Labor Market? The Penal System as a Labor Market Institution |first=Bruce |last=Western |first2=Katherine |last2=Beckett |journal=[[American Journal of Sociology]] |volume=104 |issue=4 |year=1999 |pages=1030–1060 |doi=10.1086/210135 }}</ref>
 
The unemployment rate is included in a number of major economic [[index (economics)|indexes]] including the United States' [[The Conference Board|Conference Board's]] [[Index of Leading Indicators]] a [[macroeconomics|macroeconomic]] measure of the state of the economy.
 
{{multiple image
| footer    =
| align    = left
| image1    = US Unemployment 1800-1890.gif
| width1    = {{#expr: (200 * 628 / 398) round 0}}
| alt1      = US Unemployment 1800–1890
| caption1  = Estimated U.S. Unemployment rate from 1800–1890. All data are estimates based on data compiled by Lebergott.<ref name="Lebergott1964">{{cite book |first=Stanley |last=Lebergott |year=1964 |title=Manpower in Economic Growth: The American Record since 1800 |pages=164–190 |location=New York |publisher=McGraw-Hill }}</ref>  See limitations section below regarding how to interpret unemployment statistics in self-employed, agricultural economies.  See image info for complete data.
| image2    = US Unemployment 1890-2011.gif
| width2    = {{#expr: (200 * 796 / 416) round 0}}
| alt2      = US Unemployment 1890–2011
| caption2  = Estimated U.S. Unemployment rate from 1890–2011. 1890–1930 data are from [[Christina Romer|Romer]].<ref>{{cite journal |first=Christina |last=Romer |year=1986 |title=Spurious Volatility in Historical Unemployment Data |journal=[[Journal of Political Economy]] |volume=94 |issue=1 |pages=1–37 |jstor=1831958 }}</ref> 1930–1940 data are from Coen.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Robert M. |last=Coen |year=1973 |title=Labor Force and Unemployment in the 1920s and 1930s: A Re-Examination Based on Postwar Experience |journal=[[Review of Economics and Statistics]] |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=46–55 |jstor=1927993 }}</ref> 1940–2011 data are from [[Bureau of Labor Statistics]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Bureau of Labor Statistics |url=ftp://ftp.bls.gov/pub/special.requests/lf/aat1.txt |title=Employment status of the civilian noninstitutional population, 1940 to date |accessdate=6 March 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bls.gov/cps/eetech_methods.pdf |title=Historical Comparability |year=2006 |work=Employment and Earnings. Household Data Explanatory Notes, February 2006 }}</ref> See image info for complete data.
}}{{clear}}
 
=== Alternatives ===
====Limitations of the unemployment definition====
Some critics believe that current methods of measuring unemployment are inaccurate in terms of the impact of unemployment on people as these methods do not take into account the 1.5% of the available working population incarcerated in U.S. prisons (who may or may not be working while incarcerated), those who have lost their jobs and have become [[discouraged worker|discouraged]] over time from actively looking for work, those who are [[self-employed]] or wish to become self-employed, such as tradesmen or building contractors or IT consultants, those who have retired before the official retirement age but would still like to work (involuntary early retirees), those on [[disability]] pensions who, while not possessing full health, still wish to work in occupations suitable for their medical conditions, those who work for payment for as little as one-hour per week but would like to work full-time.<ref name="Krueger 1999">{{cite journal|last=Krueger|first=Alan B.|coauthors=Lawrence F. Katz|title=New Trend in Unemployment?: The High-Pressure U.S. Labor Market of the 1990s|journal=Brookings Review|year=1999|url=http://www.brookings.edu/articles/1999/fall_unemployment_katz.aspx|accessdate=18 February 2011}}</ref>
 
These people are "involuntary part-time" workers, those who are underemployed, e.g., a computer programmer who is working in a retail store until he can find a permanent job, involuntary stay-at-home mothers who would prefer to work, and graduate and Professional school students who were unable to find worthwhile jobs after they graduated with their Bachelor's degrees.
 
[[File:Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-P109961, Berlin, Arbeitsamt Sonnenallee, Arbeitslose.jpg|thumb|A government unemployment office with job listings, Berlin, Germany, 1982.]]
Internationally, some nations' unemployment rates are sometimes muted or appear less severe due to the number of self-employed individuals working in agriculture.<ref name="Lebergott1964" /> Small independent farmers are often considered self-employed; so, they cannot be unemployed.  The impact of this is that in non-industrialized economies, such as the United States and Europe during the early 19th century, overall unemployment was approximately 3% because so many individuals were self-employed, independent farmers; yet, unemployment outside of agriculture was as high as 80%.<ref name="Lebergott1964" />
 
Many economies industrialize and experience increasing numbers of non-agricultural workers.  For example, the United States' non-agricultural labour force increased from 20% in 1800, to 50% in 1850, to 97% in 2000.<ref name="Lebergott1964" /> The shift away from self-employment increases the percentage of the population who are included in unemployment rates.  When comparing unemployment rates between countries or time periods, it is best to consider differences in their levels of industrialization and self-employment.
 
Additionally, the measures of employment and unemployment may be "too high". In some countries, the availability of [[unemployment benefits]] can inflate statistics since they give an incentive to register as unemployed. People who do not really seek work may choose to declare themselves unemployed so as to get benefits; people with undeclared paid occupations may try to get unemployment benefits in addition to the money they earn from their work.<ref name="Reporting benefit fraud.">{{cite web|url=http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/MoneyTaxAndBenefits/BenefitsTaxCreditsAndOtherSupport/BenefitFraud/DG_10014876 |title=Reporting benefit fraud |publisher=Directgov |accessdate=27 July 2011}}</ref>
 
However, in countries such as the United States, Canada, Mexico, Australia, Japan and the European Union, unemployment is measured using a sample survey (akin to a Gallup poll).<ref name="ilo.org"/> According to the BLS, a number of Eastern European nations have instituted labour force surveys as well. The sample survey has its own problems because the total number of workers in the economy is calculated based on a sample rather than a census.
 
It is possible to be neither employed nor unemployed by ILO definitions, i.e., to be outside of the "labour force."<ref name="sfgate.com"/> These are people who have no job and are not looking for one. Many of these are going to school or are retired. Family responsibilities keep others out of the labour force. Still others have a physical or mental disability which prevents them from participating in labour force activities. And of course some people simply elect not to work, preferring to be dependent on others for sustenance.
 
Typically, employment and the labour force include only work done for monetary gain. Hence, a [[homemaker]] is neither part of the labour force nor unemployed. Nor are full-time students nor prisoners considered to be part of the labour force or unemployment.<ref name="Krueger 1999"/> The latter can be important. In 1999, economists Lawrence F. Katz and Alan B. Krueger estimated that increased incarceration lowered measured unemployment in the United States by 0.17% between 1985 and the late 1990s.<ref name="Krueger 1999"/>
 
In particular, as of 2005, roughly 0.7% of the U.S. population is incarcerated (1.5% of the available working population). Additionally, children, the elderly, and some individuals with disabilities are typically not counted as part of the labour force in and are correspondingly not included in the unemployment statistics. However, some elderly and many disabled individuals are active in the labour market
 
In the early stages of an [[boom and bust|economic boom]], unemployment often rises.<ref name="Keynes 2007"/> This is because people join the labour market (give up studying, start a job hunt, etc.) because of the improving job market, but until they have actually found a position they are counted as unemployed. Similarly, during a [[recession]], the increase in the unemployment rate is moderated by people leaving the labour force or being otherwise discounted from the labour force, such as with the self-employed.
 
For the fourth quarter of 2004, according to [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]], (source [http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/36/30/35024561.pdf Employment Outlook 2005 ISBN 92-64-01045-9]), normalized unemployment for men aged 25 to 54 was 4.6% in the U.S. and 7.4% in France. At the same time and for the same population the employment rate (number of workers divided by population) was 86.3% in the U.S. and 86.7% in France. This example shows that the unemployment rate is 60% higher in France than in the U.S., yet more people in this demographic are working in France than in the U.S., which is counterintuitive if it is expected that the unemployment rate reflects the health of the labour market.<ref>{{cite web|last=Baker|first=Dean|url=http://www.prospect.org/csnc/blogs/beat_the_press_archive?month=01&year=2007&base_name=wall_street_journal_gets_germa&162#comment-1679545|title=Wall Street Journal Gets German Unemployment Wrong|work=The American Prospect}}</ref><ref>Raymond Torres, OECD head of Employment Analysis, [http://www.lemonde.fr/web/article/0,1-0@2-823448,36-917229@51-628862,0.html Avec 1,2 % de baisse fin avril, le taux de chômage continue sa décrue] ''Le Monde'', 30 mai 2007 : ''unemployment measure is less and less meaningful to measure labour market efficiency.''</ref>
 
Due to these deficiencies, many [[labour economics|labour market]] economists prefer to look at a range of economic statistics such as labour market participation rate, the percentage of people aged between 15 and 64 who are currently employed or searching for employment, the total number of full-time jobs in an economy, the number of people seeking work as a raw number and not a percentage, and the total number of person-hours worked in a month compared to the total number of person-hours people would like to work. In particular the [[National Bureau of Economic Research|NBER]] does not use the unemployment rate but prefer various employment rates to date recessions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wwwdev.nber.org/dec2008.html |title=Determination of the December 2007 Peak in Economic Activity |publisher=The National Bureau of Economic Research |date=28 November 2008 |accessdate=27 July 2011}}</ref>
 
==== Labor force participation rate ====
[[File:US Labor Participation Rate 1948-2011 by gender.svg|thumb|The United States Labor Force Participation Rate by gender 1948–2011. Men are represented in light blue, women in pink, and the total in black.]]
The labor force participation rate is the ratio between the [[labor force]] and the overall size of their [[cohort (statistics)|cohort]] (national population of the same age range). In the West during the later half of the 20th century, the labor force participation rate increased significantly, largely due to the increasing number of women entering the workplace.
 
In [[the United States]], there were three significant stages of women's increased participation in the labor force. During the late 19th century through the 1920s, very few women worked. They were young single women who typically withdrew from labor force at marriage unless family needed two incomes. These women worked primarily in the [[textile manufacturing]] industry or as [[domestic workers]]. This profession empowered women and allowed them to earn a living wage. At times, they were a financial help to their families.
 
Between 1930 and 1950, women labor force participation has increased primarily due to the increased demand for office workers, women participation in the high school movement, and due to [[electrification]] which reduced the time spent on household chores. In the 1950s to the 1970s, most women were secondary earners working mainly as secretaries, teachers, nurses, and librarians ([[pink-collar]] jobs).
 
Claudia Goldin and others, specifically point that by the mid-1970s there was a period of revolution of women in the labor force brought on by a source of different factors. Women more accurately planned for their future in the work force, investing in more applicable majors in college that prepared them to enter and compete in the labor market. In the United States, the labor force participation rate rose from approximately 59% in 1948 to 66% in 2005,<ref>http://data.bls.gov/PDQ/servlet/SurveyOutputServlet?data_tool=latest_numbers&series_id=LNS11300000&years_option=specific_years&include_graphs=true&to_month=1&from_month=2</ref> with participation among women rising from 32% to 59%<ref>http://data.bls.gov/PDQ/servlet/SurveyOutputServlet?data_tool=latest_numbers&series_id=LNS11300002&years_option=specific_years&include_graphs=true&to_year=2006&from_month=3</ref> and participation among men declining from 87% to 73%.<ref>Breaking down the male participation rate by age bracket shows a marked decline in participation among men 55 and over from approximately 71% in 1948 to 44% in 2005 [http://data.bls.gov/PDQ/servlet/SurveyOutputServlet?data_tool=latest_numbers&series_id=LNS11324231&years_option=specific_years&include_graphs=true&to_month=4&from_month=5]. Among younger age groups a decline is noticeable, but not nearly as drastic.[http://data.bls.gov/PDQ/servlet/SurveyOutputServlet?data_tool=latest_numbers&series_id=LNS11300061&years_option=specific_years&include_graphs=true&to_month=6&from_month=7]</ref><ref>[http://data.bls.gov/PDQ/servlet/SurveyOutputServlet?data_tool=latest_numbers&series_id=LNS11300001&years_option=specific_years&include_graphs=true&to_month 8=2006&from_month=9]</ref>
 
A common theory in modern economics claims that the rise of women participating in the U.S. labor force in the late 1960s was due to the introduction of a new contraceptive technology, birth control pills, and the adjustment of age of majority laws. The use of birth control gave women the flexibility of opting to invest and advance their career while maintaining a relationship. By having control over the timing of their fertility, they were not running a risk of thwarting their career choices. However, only 40% of the population actually used the birth control pill.
 
This implies that other factors may have contributed to women choosing to invest in advancing their careers. One factor may be that more and more men delayed the age of marriage, allowing women to marry later in life without worrying about the quality of older men.  Other factors include the changing nature of work, with machines replacing physical labor, eliminating many traditional male occupations, and the rise of the service sector, where many jobs are gender neutral.
 
Another factor that may have contributed to the trend was [[Equal Pay Act of 1963|The Equal Pay Act of 1963]], which aimed at abolishing wage disparity based on sex. Such legislation diminished sexual discrimination and encouraged more women to enter the labor market by receiving fair remuneration to help raising families and children.
 
At the turn of the 21st century the labor force participation began to reverse its long period of increase.  The biggest drop occurring over the period from 2007 to 2011 where participation declined from 66% to 64.1%.  Roughly half of this decline can be attributed to cyclical factors and half to long-term trend factors.  These long-term trend factors include a rising share of older workers and an increase in school enrollment rates among young workers.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Van Zandweghe|first=Willem|title=Interpreting the Recent Decline in Labor Force Participation|journal=KC Fed Economic Review|date=First Quarter 2012|pages=5–34|url=http://www.kc.frb.org/publicat/econrev/pdf/12q1VanZandweghe.pdf|accessdate=22 April 2013}}</ref>
 
The labor force participation rate can decrease when the rate of growth of the population outweighs that of the employed and unemployed together.  The labor force participation rate is a key component in long-term economic growth, almost as important as [[productivity]].
 
Participation rates are defined as follows:
 
{|align=center width=90%
| Pop = total population || LF = labor force = U + E
|-
| LFpop = labor force population <br /> (generally defined as all men and women aged 15–64) || p = participation rate = LF / LFpop
|-
| E = number employed || e = rate of employment = E / LF
|-
| U = number of unemployed || u = rate of unemployment = U / LF
|}
 
The labor force participation rate explains how an increase in the unemployment rate can occur simultaneously with an increase in employment. If a large amount of new workers enter the labor force but only a small fraction become employed, then the increase in the number of unemployed workers can outpace the growth in employment.<ref>Peter Barth and Dennis Heffley [http://www.cteconomy.uconn.edu/TCE_Individual_Articles/Spring_2004/LocalLaborForceParticipationRates.pdf "Taking Apart Taking Part: Local Labor Force Participation Rates"] University of Connecticut, 2004.</ref>
 
==== Unemployment ratio ====
The unemployment ratio calculates the share of unemployed for the whole population. Particularly many young people between 15 and 24 are studying full-time and are therefore neither working nor looking for a job. This means they are not part of the labour force which is used as the [[denominator]] for calculating the unemployment rate.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php/Unemployment_statistics#Youth_unemployment_trends |date=September 2013 |work=Eurostat |accessdate=4 November 2013}}</ref> The [[youth unemployment]] ratios in the European Union range from 5.2 (Austria) to 20.6 percent (Spain). These are considerably lower than the standard youth unemployment rates, ranging from 7.9 (Germany) to 57.9 percent (Greece).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php?title=File:Youth_unemployment,_2012Q4_%28%25%29.png&filetimestamp=20130418091546# |date=September 2013 |work=Eurostat |accessdate=4 November 2013}}</ref>
 
==Effects==
High and persistent unemployment, in which [[economic inequality]] increases, has a negative effect on subsequent long-run economic growth. Unemployment can harm growth not only because it is a waste of resources, but also because it generates redistributive pressures and subsequent distortions, drives people to poverty, constrains liquidity limiting labor mobility, and erodes self-esteem promoting social dislocation, unrest and conflict.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Castells-Quintana|first=David|coauthors=Vicente Royuela|title=Unemployment and long-run economic growth: The role of income inequality and urbanisation|journal=Investigaciones Regionales|year=2012|volume=12|issue=24|pages=153-173|url=http://diposit.ub.edu/dspace/bitstream/2445/33140/1/617293.pdf|accessdate=17 October 2013}}</ref>  2013 Economics Nobel prize winner [[Robert J. Shiller]] said that rising inequality in the United States and elsewhere is the most important problem.<ref>{{cite news|last=Christoffersen|first=John|title=Rising inequality 'most important problem,' says Nobel-winning economist|url=http://www.stltoday.com/business/local/rising-inequality-most-important-problem-says-nobel-winning-economist/article_a5065957-05c3-5ac0-ba5b-dab91c22973a.html|accessdate=19 October 2013|newspaper=St. Louis Post-Dispatch|date=October 14, 2013}}</ref>
 
===Costs===
====Individual====
[[File:Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg|thumb|''Migrant Mother'', [[Dorothea Lange]], 1936]]
Unemployed individuals are unable to earn money to meet financial obligations. Failure to pay mortgage payments or to pay rent may lead to [[homelessness]] through [[foreclosure]] or [[eviction]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2010/02/16/national/main6213988.shtml |title=Suburban Homeless: Rising Tide of Families |work=CBS News |date=16 February 2010 }}</ref> Across the United States the growing ranks of people made homeless in the foreclosure crisis are generating [[tent cities]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/mar/26/tent-city-california-recession-economy |title=U.S. tent cities highlight new realities as recession wears on |newspaper=The Guardian |date=26 March 2009 }}</ref>
 
Unemployment increases susceptibility to malnutrition, illness, mental stress, and loss of [[self-esteem]], leading to depression. According to a study published in Social Indicator Research, even those who tend to be optimistic find it difficult to look on the bright side of things when unemployed. Using interviews and data from German participants aged 16 to 94 – including individuals coping with the stresses of real life and not just a volunteering student population – the researchers determined that even optimists struggled with being unemployed.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://newswise.com/articles/view/545782/ |title=Even Optimists Get the Blues When Pink-slipped |work=Newswise |accessdate=27 October 2008 }}</ref>
 
In 1979, [[M. Harvey Brenner|Brenner]] found that for every 10% increase in the number of unemployed there is an increase of 1.2% in total mortality, a 1.7% increase in [[cardiovascular disease]], 1.3% more [[cirrhosis]] cases, 1.7% more suicides, 4.0% more arrests, and 0.8% more assaults reported to the police.<ref>{{cite book |first=M. Harvey |last=Brenner |chapter=Influence of the Social Environment on Psychology: The Historical Perspective |title=Stress and Mental Disorder |editor-first=James E. |editor-last=Barrett |location=New York |publisher=Raven Press |year=1979 |isbn=0-89004-384-1 }}</ref><ref name=b>{{cite web|author=Richard Ashley|year=2007|url=http://ashleymac.econ.vt.edu/ashley/3204/brenner.pdf|title=Fact sheet on the impact of unemployment|format=PDF|publisher=Virginia Tech, Department of Economics|accessdate=11 October 2007}}</ref>
 
A study by [[Christopher Ruhm|Ruhm]], in 2000, on the effect of recessions on health found that several measures of health actually improve during recessions.<ref name=Ruhm>{{cite journal |first=Christopher |last=Ruhm |title=Are Recessions Good for Your Health? |journal=[[Quarterly Journal of Economics]] |year=2000 |volume=115 |issue=2 |pages=617–650 |doi=10.1162/003355300554872 }}</ref> As for the impact of an economic downturn on crime, during the [[Great Depression]] the crime rate did not decrease. The unemployed in the U.S. often use [[welfare (financial aid)|welfare]] programs such as [[Food Stamps]] or accumulating [[debt]] because unemployment insurance in the U.S. generally does not replace a majority of the income one received on the job (and one cannot receive such aid indefinitely).
 
Not everyone suffers equally from unemployment. In a prospective study of 9570 individuals over four years, highly conscientious people suffered more than twice as much if they became unemployed.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Boyce|first=Christopher J.|coauthors=Wood, Alex M., Brown, Gordon D.A.|title=The dark side of conscientiousness: Conscientious people experience greater drops in life satisfaction following unemployment|journal=Journal of Research in Personality |year=2010 |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages=535–539 |doi=10.1016/j.jrp.2010.05.001 }}</ref>  The authors suggested this may be due to conscientious people making different attributions about why they became unemployed, or through experiencing stronger reactions following failure. There is also possibility of reverse causality from poor health to unemployment.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bockerman|first=Petri|coauthors=Ilmakunnas, Pekka|title=Unemployment and self-assessed health: evidence from panel data|journal=Health Economics |year=2009|volume=18|issue=2|pages=161–179|doi=10.1002/hec.1361 |pmid=18536002 }}</ref>
 
Some{{who?|date=August 2013}} hold that many of the low-income jobs are not really a better option than unemployment with a [[welfare state]] (with its [[unemployment insurance]] benefits). But since it is difficult or impossible to get unemployment insurance benefits without having worked in the past, these jobs and unemployment are more complementary than they are substitutes. (These jobs are often held short-term, either by students or by those trying to gain experience; turnover in most low-paying jobs is high.)
 
Another cost for the unemployed is that the combination of unemployment, lack of financial resources, and social responsibilities may push unemployed workers to take jobs that do not fit their skills or allow them to use their talents. Unemployment can cause [[underemployment]], and fear of job loss can spur psychological anxiety. As well as anxiety, it can cause depression, lack of confidence, and huge amounts of stress. They will begin to lose social contacts, and good social skills.
 
====Social====
[[File:Dyfiharipadarally (32).jpg|thumb|Demonstration against unemployment in [[Kerala, India]]]]
An economy with high unemployment is not using all of the resources, specifically labour, available to it. Since it is operating below its [[production possibility frontier]], it could have higher output if all the workforce were usefully employed. However, there is a trade-off between economic efficiency and unemployment: if the [[frictional unemployment|frictionally unemployed]] accepted the first job they were offered, they would be likely to be operating at below their skill level, reducing the economy's efficiency.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|url=http://www.daviddfriedman.com/Academic/Price_Theory/PThy_1st_Edn_Ch22/PThy_1st_Edn_Chap_22.html |title=Price Theory: First Edition, Chapter 22: Inflation and Unemployment |publisher=Daviddfriedman.com |accessdate=27 July 2011}}</ref>
 
During a long period of unemployment, workers can lose their skills, causing a loss of [[human capital]]. Being unemployed can also reduce the life expectancy of workers by about seven years.<ref name="autogenerated2" />
 
High unemployment can encourage [[xenophobia]] and [[protectionism]] as workers fear that foreigners are stealing their jobs.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Steininger |first=M. |last2=Rotte |first2=R. |year=2009 |title=Crime, unemployment, and xenophobia?: An ecological analysis of right-wing election results in Hamburg, 1986–2005 |journal=Jahrbuch für Regionalwissenschaft |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=29–63 |doi=10.1007/s10037-008-0032-0 }}</ref> Efforts to preserve existing jobs of domestic and native workers include legal barriers against "outsiders" who want jobs, obstacles to immigration, and/or [[tariff]]s and similar [[trade barrier]]s against foreign competitors.
 
High unemployment can also cause social problems such as crime; if people have less disposable income than before, it is very likely that crime levels within the economy will increase.
 
====Socio-political====
[[File:Unemployment in Germany 2003 by states.png|thumb|Unemployment rate in Germany in 2003 by states.]]
High levels of unemployment can be causes of civil unrest, in some cases leading to revolution, and particularly [[totalitarianism]]. The fall of the [[Weimar Republic]] in 1933 and [[Machtergreifung|Adolf Hitler's rise to power]], which culminated in [[World War II]] and the deaths of tens of millions and the destruction of much of the physical capital of Europe, is attributed to the poor economic conditions in Germany at the time, notably a high unemployment rate<ref name="leopold">[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/les-leopold/why-are-we-afraid-to-crea_b_487041.html Why are We Afraid to Create the Jobs We Need?], Les Leopold, 5 March 2010</ref> of above 20%; see [[Great Depression in Central Europe]] for details.
 
Note that the [[hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic]] is not directly blamed for the Nazi rise – the [[Inflation in the Weimar Republic]] occurred primarily in the period 1921–23, which was contemporary with Hitler's [[Beer Hall Putsch]] of 1923, and is blamed for damaging the credibility of democratic institutions, but the Nazis did not assume government until 1933, ten years after the hyperinflation but in the midst of high unemployment.
 
Rising unemployment has traditionally been regarded by the public and media in any country as a key guarantor of electoral defeat for any government which oversees it. This was very much the consensus in the United Kingdom until 1983, when [[Margaret Thatcher|Margaret Thatcher's]] [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] government won a [[United Kingdom general election, 1983|landslide in the general election]], despite overseeing a rise in unemployment from 1,500,000 to 3,200,000 since its [[United Kingdom general election, 1979|election four years earlier]].<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-15276765 |work=BBC News | title=Whatever happened to full employment? | date=13 October 2011}}</ref>
 
===Benefits===
{{Main|Full employment}}
The primary benefit of unemployment is that people are available for hire, without being [[Recruiter|headhunted]] away from their existing employers. This permits new and old businesses to take on staff.
 
Unemployment is argued to be "beneficial" to the people who are not unemployed in the sense that it averts inflation,{{Citation needed|date=September 2011}} which itself has damaging effects, by providing (in [[Marxian economics|Marxian]] terms) a [[reserve army of labour]], that keeps wages in check. However the direct connection between full local employment and local inflation has been disputed by some due to the recent increase in international trade that supplies low-priced goods even while local employment rates rise to full employment.<ref>{{cite book |last=He |first=Xiaohong |year=1998 |chapter=From Trade Among Nations to Trade Within Firms Across National Borders |title=Globalization and Regionalization: Strategies, Policies, and Economic Environments |editor1-first=Jean Louis |editor1-last=Mucchielli |editor2-first=Peter J. |editor2-last=Buckley |editor3-first=Victor V. |editor3-last=Cordell |publisher=International Business Press |location=Binghamton, NY |pages=15–73 |isbn=0-7890-0513-1 }}</ref>
 
[[File:Efficiency wage Shapiro Stiglitz.svg|thumb|In the [[Shapiro–Stiglitz model]] of efficiency wages, workers are paid at a level that dissuades shirking. This prevents wages from dropping to market clearing levels.]] Full employment cannot be achieved because workers would shirk{{citation needed|date=February 2013}} if they were not threatened with the possibility of unemployment. The curve for the no-shirking condition (labeled NSC) goes to infinity at full employment as a result. The inflation-fighting benefits to the ''entire economy'' arising from a presumed optimum level of unemployment has been studied extensively.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Shapiro |first=Carl |last2=Stiglitz |first2=Joseph E. |title=Equilibrium Unemployment as a Worker Discipline Device |journal=[[American Economic Review]] |volume=74 |year=1984 |pages=433–444 |issue=3 |jstor=1804018}}</ref> The [[Shapiro–Stiglitz model]] suggests that wages are not bid down sufficiently to ever reach 0% unemployment.<ref name=SHAPIROSTGLTZMATH>{{cite web|url=http://coin.wne.uw.edu.pl/lwincenciak/docs/lecture_4.pdf |title=Efficiency wages, the Shapiro-Stiglitz Model |format=PDF |accessdate=27 July 2011}}</ref> This occurs because employers know that when wages decrease, workers will shirk and expend less effort. Employers avoid shirking by preventing wages from decreasing so low that workers give up and become unproductive. These higher wages perpetuate unemployment while the threat of unemployment reduces shirking.
 
Before current levels of world trade were developed, unemployment was demonstrated to reduce inflation, following the [[Phillips curve]], or to decelerate inflation, following the NAIRU/[[natural rate of unemployment]] theory, since it is relatively easy to seek a new job without losing one's current one. And when more jobs are available for fewer workers (lower unemployment), it may allow workers to find the jobs that better fit their tastes, talents, and needs.
 
As in the Marxian theory of unemployment, [[special interests]] may also benefit: some employers may expect that employees with no fear of losing their jobs will not work as hard, or will demand increased wages and benefit. According to this theory, unemployment may promote general [[productivity (economics)|labour productivity]] and [[profit (economics)|profitability]] by increasing employers' rationale for their [[monopsony]]-like power (and profits).<ref name="Marx 1863 478 or at MEW, 26.3, 300">{{cite book|last=Marx|first=Karl|title=Theorien über den Mehrwert (Theory of Surplus Value)|year=1863|pages=478 or at MEW, 26.3, 300|url=http://www.mlwerke.de/me/me26/me26b471.htm}}</ref>
 
Optimal unemployment has also been defended as an environmental tool to brake the constantly accelerated growth of the GDP to maintain levels sustainable in the context of resource constraints and environmental impacts.<ref>{{Cite book
| last = Sullivan
| first = Arthur
| authorlink = Arthur O' Sullivan
| coauthors = Steven M. Sheffrin
| title = Economics: Principles in action
| publisher = Pearson Prentice Hall
| year = 2003
| location = Upper Saddle River, NJ
| page = 335
| url =
| id =
| isbn = 0-13-063085-3
| postscript = <!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref> However the tool of denying jobs to willing workers seems a blunt instrument for conserving resources and the environment&nbsp;– it reduces the consumption of the unemployed across the board, and only in the short term. Full employment of the unemployed workforce, all focused toward the goal of developing more environmentally efficient methods for production and consumption might provide a more significant and lasting cumulative environmental benefit and reduced resource consumption.<ref>{{cite web |last=Richard |first=Michael Graham |date=2 June 2008 |url=http://treehugger.com/files/2008/02/4_reasons_recession_bad_environment.php |title=Counter-Point: 4 Reasons Why Recession is BAD for the Environment |work=TreeHugger }}</ref> If so the future economy and workforce would benefit from the resultant structural increases in the sustainable level of GDP growth.
 
Some critics of the "culture of work" such as anarchist [[Bob Black]] see employment as overemphasized culturally in modern countries. Such critics often propose quitting jobs when possible, working less, reassessing the cost of living to this end, creation of jobs which are "fun" as opposed to "work," and creating cultural norms where work is seen as unhealthy. These people advocate an "[[anti-work]]" ethic for life.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Idle Foundation|url=http://idlefoundation.org}}</ref>
 
===Decline in work hours===
As a result of productivity the work week declined considerably over the 19th century.<ref>{{Cite web
| last1 =
| first1 =
| authorlink1 =
| title = Hours of Work in U.S. History
| year = 2010
| url = http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/whaples.work.hours.us
| postscript = <!--None-->
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
| last1 = Whaples
| first1 = Robert
| author1-link =
| title = The Shortening of the American Work Week: An Economic and Historical Analysis of Its Context, Causes, and Consequences |journal=[[Journal of Economic History]] |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=454–457
| year = 1991
| jstor = 2122588
| postscript = <!--None-->
}}</ref>  By the 1920s in the U.S. the average work week was 49 hours, but the work week was reduced to 40 hours (after which overtime premium was applied) as part of the [[National Industrial Recovery Act]] of 1933.  At the time of the Great Depression of the 1930s it was understood that with the enormous productivity gains due to [[electrification]], [[mass production]] and agricultural mechanization, there was no need for a large number of previously employed workers.<ref name="Jerome 1934">{{Cite book
| last1 = Jerome
| first1 = Harry
| author1-link =
| title = Mechanization in Industry, National Bureau of Economic Research
| year = 1934
| url =
| postscript = <!--None-->}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book
| last1 = Bell
| first1 = Spurgeon
| title = Productivity, Wages and National Income, The Institute of Economics of the Brookings Institution
| year = 1940
| postscript = <!--None-->
}}</ref>
 
==Controlling or reducing unemployment==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: right; font-size: 75%; float: right; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
|+ United States Families on Relief (in 1,000's)<ref>{{cite book|last=Howard|first=Donald S.|title=WPA and Federal Relief Policy|year=1943|page=34}}</ref>
|-
!
! 1936
! 1937
! 1938
! 1939
! 1940
! 1941
|-
! colspan="7"| Workers employed
|-
! WPA
| 1,995
| 2,227
| 1,932
| 2,911
| 1,971
| 1,638
|-
! CCC and NYA
| 712
| 801
| 643
| 793
| 877
| 919
|-
! Other federal work projects
| 554
| 663
| 452
| 488
| 468
| 681
|-
! colspan="7"| Cases on public assistance
|-
! Social security programs
| 602
| 1,306
| 1,852
| 2,132
| 2,308
| 2,517
|-
! General relief
| 2,946
| 1,484
| 1,611
| 1,647
| 1,570
| 1,206
|-
! colspan="7"| Totals
|-
! Total families helped
| 5,886
| 5,660
| 5,474
| 6,751
| 5,860
| 5,167
|-
! Unemployed workers (BLS)
| 9,030
| 7,700
| 10,390
| 9,480
| 8,120
| 5,560
|-
! Coverage (cases/unemployed)
| 65%
| 74%
| 53%
| 71%
| 72%
| 93%
|}
 
Societies try a number of different measures to get as many people as possible into work, and various societies have experienced close to [[full employment]] for extended periods, particularly during the [[Post-World War II economic expansion]]. The United Kingdom in the 1950s and 60s averaged 1.6% unemployment,<ref>{{cite book | last = Sloman | first = John | title = Economics | year = 2003 | page = 811 | publisher=Prentice Hall |location=London |isbn=0-273-65574-4 }}</ref> while in Australia the 1945 ''[[White Paper on Full Employment in Australia]]'' established a government policy of full employment, which policy lasted until the 1970s when the government ran out of money.
 
However, [[mainstream economics|mainstream economic]] discussions of [[full employment]] since the 1970s suggest that attempts to reduce the level of unemployment below the [[natural rate of unemployment]] will fail, resulting only in less output and more inflation.
 
===Demand side solutions===
Many countries aid the unemployed through [[social welfare program]]<nowiki/>s. These unemployment benefits include [[unemployment insurance]], [[unemployment compensation]], welfare and subsidies to aid in retraining. The main goal of these programs is to alleviate short-term hardships and, more importantly, to allow workers more time to search for a job.
 
A direct demand-side solution to unemployment is government-funded employment of the able-bodied poor. This was notably implemented in Britain from the 17th century until 1948 in the institution of the [[workhouse]], which provided jobs for the unemployed with harsh conditions and poor wages to dissuade their use. A modern alternative is a [[job guarantee]], where the government guarantees work at a living wage.
 
Temporary measures can include [[public works]] programs such as the [[Works Progress Administration]]. Government-funded employment is not widely advocated as a solution to unemployment, except in times of crisis; this is attributed to the public sector jobs' existence depending directly on the tax receipts from private sector employment.
[[File:State Employment growth and Tax Changes for the Top 10%.jpg|thumb|Supply-side economics proposes that lower taxes lead to employment growth. Historical state data from the United States shows a heterogeneous result.]]
 
In the U.S., the unemployment insurance allowance one receives is based solely on previous income (not time worked, family size, etc.) and usually compensates for one-third of one's previous income. To qualify, one must reside in their respective state for at least a year and, of course, work. The system was established by the [[Social Security Act of 1935]]. Although 90% of citizens are covered by unemployment insurance, less than 40% apply for and receive benefits.<ref>{{cite web|last=Center on Budget and Policy Priorities|title=Introduction to Unemployment Insurance|url=http://www.cbpp.org/cms/index.cfm?fa=view&id=1466#_ftn2|accessdate=21 October 2010}}</ref> However, the number applying for and receiving benefits increases during recessions. In cases of highly seasonal industries the system provides income to workers during the off seasons, thus encouraging them to stay attached to the industry.
[[File:State Employment growth and Tax Changes for the Bottom 90% v2.jpg|thumb|Tax decreases on high income earners (top 10%) are not correlated with employment growth, however, tax decreases on lower income earners (bottom 90%) are correlated with employment growth.<ref name="economix.blogs.nytimes.com">http://economix.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/10/19/tax-cuts-for-job-creators/</ref><ref name="economix.blogs.nytimes.com"/>]]
 
According to classical economic theory, markets reach equilibrium where supply equals demand; everyone who wants to sell at the market price can. Those who do not want to sell at this price do not; in the labour market this is classical unemployment. Increases in the demand for labour will move the economy along the demand curve, increasing wages and employment. The demand for labour in an economy is derived from the demand for goods and services. As such, if the demand for goods and services in the economy increases, the demand for labour will increase, increasing employment and wages.
 
Monetary policy and fiscal policy can both be used to increase short-term growth in the economy, increasing the demand for labour and decreasing unemployment.
 
===Supply-side solutions===
However, the labour market is not 100% efficient: It does not clear, though it may be more efficient than bureaucracy. Some argue that minimum wages and union activity keep wages from falling, which means too many people want to sell their labour at the going price but cannot.  This assumes [[perfect competition]] exists in the labour market, specifically that no single entity is large enough to affect wage levels.
 
Advocates of [[supply-side]] policies believe those policies can solve this by making the labour market more flexible. These include removing the minimum wage and reducing the power of unions. Supply-siders argue the reforms increase long-term growth. This increased supply of goods and services requires more workers, increasing employment. It is argued that supply-side policies, which include cutting taxes on businesses and reducing regulation, create jobs and reduce unemployment. Other supply-side policies include education to make workers more attractive to employers.
 
==History==
There are relatively limited historical records on unemployment because it has not always been acknowledged or measured systematically. Industrialization involves economies of scale that often prevent individuals from having the capital to create their own jobs to be self-employed.  An individual who cannot either join an enterprise or create a job is unemployed. As individual farmers, ranchers, spinners, doctors and merchants are organized into large enterprises, those who cannot join or compete become unemployed.
 
Recognition of unemployment occurred slowly as economies across the world industrialized and bureaucratized. Before this, traditional [[self sufficient]] native societies have no concept of unemployment. The recognition of the concept of "unemployment" is best exemplified through the well documented historical records in England. For example, in 16th century England no distinction was made between [[vagrancy (people)|vagrants]] and the jobless; both were simply categorized as "[[sturdy beggar]]s", to be punished and moved on.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.probertencyclopaedia.com/cgi-bin/res.pl?keyword=Sturdy+Beggars&offset=0 |title=Sturdy Beggars |publisher=Probertencyclopaedia.com |accessdate=22 July 2009}}</ref>
 
The closing of the [[monasteries]] in the 1530s increased poverty, as the church had helped the poor. In addition, there was a significant rise in [[enclosure]] during the [[Tudor period]]. Also the population was rising. Those unable to find work had a stark choice: starve or break the law. In 1535, a bill was drawn up calling for the creation of a system of [[public works]] to deal with the problem of unemployment, to be funded by a tax on income and capital. A law passed a year later allowed vagabonds to be whipped and hanged.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.localhistories.org/poortudors.html |title=Poor Tudors |publisher=Localhistories.org |accessdate=22 July 2009}}</ref>
 
In 1547, a bill was passed that subjected vagrants to some of the more extreme provisions of the criminal law, namely two years servitude and branding with a "V" as the penalty for the first offense and death for the second.<ref>R. O. Bucholz, Newton Key, Early modern England, 1485–1714, p176</ref> During the reign of Henry VIII, as many as 72,000 people are estimated to have been executed.<ref>"[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/execution/readings/history.html History of the Death Penalty]". Public Broadcasting Service (PBS).</ref> In the 1576 Act each town was required to provide work for the unemployed.<ref>"[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/tudors/poverty_01.shtml Poverty in Elizabethan England]". BBC&nbsp;– History.</ref>
 
The [[Elizabethan Poor Law (1601)|Elizabethan Poor Law]] of 1601, one of the world's first government-sponsored welfare programs, made a clear distinction between those who were unable to work and those able-bodied people who refused employment.<ref>"[http://www.brandonsd.mb.ca/crocus/library/social_classes_in_shakespeare.htm#Poor Social Classes in Shakespeare's England]"</ref> Under the [[Poor Law]] systems of [[English Poor Laws|England and Wales]], [[Scottish Poor Laws|Scotland]] and [[Irish Poor Laws|Ireland]] a [[workhouse]] was a place where people who were unable to support themselves, could go to live and work.<ref>"[http://www2.rgu.ac.uk/publicpolicy/introduction/historyf.htm British social policy, 1601–1948]", The Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen.</ref>
 
===Industrial Revolution to late 19th century===
{{quote|Poverty was a highly visible problem in the eighteenth century, both in cities and in the countryside. In France and Britain by the end of the century, an estimated 10 percent of the people depended on charity or begging for their food.|Jackson J. Spielvogel (2008)|[http://books.google.com/books?id=fwxLkRmd-4QC&pg=&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false Western Civilization: Since 1500].|Cengage Learning. p.566. ISBN 0-495-50287-1}} By 1776 some 1,912 parish and corporation workhouses had been established in England and Wales, housing almost 100,000 paupers.
 
A description of the miserable living standards of the mill workers in England in 1844 was given by [[Fredrick Engels]] in ''The Condition of the Working-Class in England in 1844''.<ref>{{cite book |title= The Condition of the Working-Class in England in 1844 |last=Engels |first=Fredrick |year=1892 |publisher= Swan Sonnenschein & Co |location= London |isbn=  |pages=45, 48–53 |url= http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1844engels.html }}Link is to excerpt</ref>  In the preface to the 1892 edition Engels notes that the extreme poverty he wrote about in 1844 had largely disappeared.  [[David Ames Wells]] also noted that living conditions in England had improved near the end of the 19th century and that unemployment was low.
 
The scarcity and high price of labor in the U.S. during the 19th century was well documented by contemporary accounts, as in the following:
 
<blockquote>"The laboring classes are comparatively few in number, but this is counterbalanced by, and indeed, may be one of the causes of the eagerness by which they call in the use of machinery in almost every department of industry.  Wherever it can be applied as a substitute for manual labor, it is universally and willingly resorted to ….It is this condition of the labor market, and this eager resort to machinery wherever it can be applied, to which, under the guidance of superior education and intelligence, the remarkable prosperity of the United States is due."<ref>{{Roe1916}}Report of the British Commissioners to the New York Industrial Exhibition, London 1854</ref> [[Joseph Whitworth]], 1854</blockquote>
 
Scarcity of labor was a factor in the economics of slavery in the U.S.
 
As new territories were opened and Federal land sales conducted, land had to be cleared and new homesteads established.  Hundreds of thousands of immigrants annually came to the U.S. and found jobs digging canals and building railroads.  Almost all work during most of the 19th century was done by hand or with horses, mules, or oxen, because there was very little mechanization.  The workweek during most of the 19th century was 60 hours.  Unemployment at times was between one and two percent.
 
The tight labor market was a factor in productivity gains allowing workers to maintain or increase their nominal wages during the secular deflation that caused real wages to rise at various times in the 19th century, especially in the final decades.<ref>{{cite book
|title=Recent Economic Changes and Their Effect on Production and Distribution of Wealth and Well-Being of Society
|last=Wells
|first=David A.
|year=1891 |publisher= D. Appleton and Co.|location= New York|isbn= 0-543-72474-3 |url= http://books.google.com/?id=2V3qF4MWh_wC&printsec=frontcover&dq=RECENT+ECONOMIC+CHANGES+AND+THEIR+EFFECT+ON+DISTRIBUTION+OF+WEALTH+AND+WELL+BEING+OF+SOCIETY+WELLS#v=onepage&q&f=false }}</ref>
 
=== 20th century ===
{{multiple image
| align    = right
| direction = horizontal
| image1    = Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R79053, Arbeitsloser auf Arbeitssuche.jpg
| width1    = 147
| caption1  = "Industrious young man looking for work" Unemployed German laborer in 1928
| image2    = UnemployedMarch.jpg
| width2    = 165
| caption2  = Unemployed men, marching for jobs during the Great Depression in Canada, 1930
}}
There were labor shortages during WW I.<ref name="Jerome 1934"/>  Ford Motor Co. doubled wages to reduce turnover.  After 1925 unemployment began to gradually rise.<ref>{{cite book |title=Mass Production, the Stock Market Crash and the Great Depression |last=Beaudreau |first=Bernard C.|year=1996 |publisher=Authors Choice Press|location=New York, Lincoln, Shanghi |isbn= |url=}}</ref>
 
The decade of the 1930s saw the [[Great Depression]] impact unemployment across the globe.  One Soviet trading corporation in New York averaged 350 applications a day from Americans seeking jobs in the Soviet Union.<ref>[http://www.usnews.com/usnews/culture/articles/030630/3070thanniv.htm A reign of rural terror, a world away], U.S. News, 22 June 2003</ref> In Germany the unemployment rate reached nearly 25% in 1932.<ref>[http://www.english.uiuc.edu/maps/depression/about.htm About the Great Depression], University of Illinois</ref>
 
In some towns and cities in the north east of England, unemployment reached as high as 70%; the national unemployment level peaked at more than 22% in 1932.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.blacksacademy.net/content/3156.html |title=Social conditions in Britain in the 1930s: employment and unemployment |publisher=Blacksacademy.net |accessdate=27 July 2011}}</ref> Unemployment in Canada reached 27% at the depth of the Depression in 1933.<ref>[http://www.canadianeconomy.gc.ca/English/economy/1929_39depression.html 1929–1939 – The Great Depression], Source: Bank of Canada</ref> In 1929, the U.S. unemployment rate averaged 3%.<ref>[http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/Steindl.GD.Recovery Economic Recovery in the Great Depression], Frank G. Steindl, Oklahoma State University</ref> In 1933, 25% of all American workers and 37% of all nonfarm workers were unemployed.<ref>[http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/GreatDepression.html Great Depression], The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics</ref>
 
In Cleveland, Ohio, the unemployment rate was 60%; in Toledo, Ohio, 80%.<ref name=Depression>[http://amhist.ist.unomaha.edu/lessons/Ruben%20Cano_Why%20did%20the%20Great%20Depression%20happen%3F_lesson_template_mps.doc Overproduction of Goods, Unequal Distribution of Wealth, High Unemployment, and Massive Poverty], From: President's Economic Council</ref> There were two million homeless people migrating across the United States.<ref name=Depression/> Over 3 million unemployed young men were taken out of the cities and placed into 2600+ work camps managed by the [[Civilian Conservation Corps|CCC]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Finegan |first=Chance |url=http://www.nationalparkstraveler.com/2008/09/park-history-spirit-civilian-conservation-corps |title=National Park History: "The Spirit of the Civilian Conservation Corps" |publisher=National Parks Traveler |date=11 September 2008 |accessdate=27 July 2011}}</ref>
 
Unemployment in the United Kingdom fell later in the 1930s as the depression eased, and remained low (in six figures) after [[World War II]].
 
Fredrick Mills found that in the U.S., 51% of the decline in work hours was due to the fall in production and 49% was from increased productivity.<ref name="Rifkin 1995">{{cite book| author = Rifkin, Jeremy | title = The End of Work: The Decline of the Global Labor Force and the Dawn of the Post-Market Era | publisher = Putnam Publishing Group | year = 1995| isbn = 0-87477-779-8}}</ref>
By 1972 [[unemployment in the UK]] had crept back up above 1,000,000, and was even higher by the end of the decade, with inflation also being high. Although the [[Monetarism|monetarist]] economic policies of [[Margaret Thatcher|Margaret Thatcher's]] [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] government saw inflation reduced after 1979, unemployment soared in the early 1980s, exceeding 3,000,000&nbsp;– a level not seen for some 50 years&nbsp;– by 1982. This represented one in eight of the workforce, with unemployment exceeding 20% in some parts of the United Kingdom which had relied on the now-declining industries such as coal mining.<ref name="politics.co.uk">{{cite web|url=http://www.politics.co.uk/briefings-guides/issue-briefs/employment/unemployment-$366619.htm |title=Unemployment, issue briefing |publisher=Politics.co.uk |accessdate=27 July 2011}}</ref>
 
However, this was a time of high unemployment in all major industrialised nations. By the spring of 1983, [[unemployment in the United Kingdom]] had risen by 6% in the previous 12 months; compared to 10% in Japan, 23% [[Unemployment in the United States|in the United States of America]] and 34% in [[West Germany]] (seven years before [[Reunification of Germany|reunification]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bodley30.bodley.ox.ac.uk:8180/luna/servlet/detail/ODLodl~6~6~51795~105151:1983-08 |title=CPA Poster Collection |publisher=Conservative Party Archive Poster Collection |accessdate=27 July 2011}}</ref>
 
Unemployment in the United Kingdom remained above 3,000,000 until the spring of 1987, by which time the economy was enjoying a boom.<ref name="politics.co.uk"/> By the end of 1989, unemployment had fallen to 1,600,000. However, inflation had reached 7.8% and the following year it reached a nine-year high of 9.5%; leading to increased interest rates.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://safalra.com/other/historical-uk-inflation-price-conversion/ |title=Historical UK Inflation And Price Conversion |publisher=Safalra's Website |date=15 April 2010 |accessdate=27 July 2011}}</ref>
 
Another [[Early 1990s recession|recession]] began during 1990 and lasted until 1992. Unemployment began to increase and by the end of 1992 nearly 3,000,000 in the United Kingdom were unemployed. Then came a strong economic recovery.<ref name="politics.co.uk"/> With inflation down to 1.6% by 1993, unemployment then began to fall rapidly, standing at 1,800,000 by early 1997.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/1997/01/16/business/jobless-rate-in-britain-drops-to-six-year-low.html |title=Jobless Rate in Britain Drops to Six-Year Low |work=The New York Times |date=16 January 1997 |accessdate=27 July 2011}}</ref>
 
==== 21st century ====
[[File:Unemployment Rate of Japan 1953-2009.jpg|thumb|The Japanese unemployment rate, 1953–2006.]]
The official unemployment rate in the 16 EU countries that use the euro rose to 10% in December 2009 as a result of [[Late 2000s recession|another recession]].<ref>"[http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,5191873,00.html?maca=en-rss-en-eu-2092-rdf Euro-zone unemployment climbs to 10 percent high]. Deutsche Welle. 29 January 2010.</ref> [[Latvia]] had the highest unemployment rate in EU at 22.3% for November 2009.<ref>"[http://www.upi.com/Business_News/2010/01/08/Eurozone-unemployment-hits-double-digits/UPI-55211262961642/ Eurozone unemployment hits double digits]". UPI.com. 8 January 2010.</ref> Europe's young workers have been especially hard hit.<ref>"[http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2009/07/13/europes_new_lost_generation Europe's New Lost Generation]". Foreign Policy. 13 July 2009.</ref> In November 2009, the unemployment rate in the [[EU27]] for those aged 15–24 was 18.3%. For those under 25, the unemployment rate in Spain was 43.8%.<ref>[http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=STAT/09/109&type=HTML&aged=0&language=EN&guiLanguage=en November 2009 Euro area unemployment rate up to 10.0% EU27 up to 9.5% ]. [[Eurostat]]. 8 January 2010.</ref> Unemployment has risen in two-thirds of European countries since 2010.<ref>"[http://www.guardian.co.uk/business/2012/apr/30/global-unemployment-outlook-gloomy-ilo Global unemployment outlook gloomy, warns ILO]. ''The Guardian''. 30 April 2012.</ref>
 
Into the 21st century, [[unemployment in the United Kingdom]] remained low and the economy remaining strong, while at this time several other European economies&nbsp;– namely, France and Germany (reunified a decade earlier)&nbsp;– experienced a minor recession and a substantial rise in unemployment.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/2003770.stm |title=Germany's recession ends |publisher=BBC News |date=23 May 2002 |accessdate=27 July 2011}}</ref>
 
In 2008, when the recession brought on another increase in the United Kingdom, after 15 years of economic growth and no major rises in unemployment.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/7670800.stm |title=Jobless rise highest for 17 years |publisher=BBC News |date=15 October 2008 |accessdate=27 July 2011}}</ref> Early in 2009, unemployment passed the 2,000,000 mark, by which time economists were predicting it would soon reach 3,000,000.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/7947766.stm |title=Unemployment passes two million |publisher=BBC News |date=18 March 2009 |accessdate=27 July 2011}}</ref> However, the end of the recession was declared in January 2010<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8479639.stm |title=UK economy emerges from recession |publisher=BBC News |date=27 January 2010 |accessdate=27 July 2011}}</ref> and unemployment peaked at nearly 2,700,000 in 2011,<ref>{{cite news |url= http://en.mercopress.com/2012/03/15/uk-youth-unemployment-at-its-highest-in-two-decades-22.5 |title= UK youth unemployment at its highest in two decades: 22.5% |work=MercoPress |date= 15 April 2012}}</ref> appearing to ease fears of unemployment reaching 3,000,000.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8634241.stm |title=UK unemployment increases to 2.5 million |publisher=BBC News |date=21 April 2010 |accessdate=27 July 2011}}</ref> The unemployment rate of Britain's young black people was 47.4% in 2011.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/2012/mar/09/half-uk-young-black-men-unemployed |title=Half of UK's young black males are unemployed |work=The Guardian |date=9 March 2012}}</ref>
 
A flood of inexpensive consumer goods from [[People's Republic of China|China]] has recently encountered criticism from Europe, the United States and some African countries.<ref>[http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/bizchina/2007-03/21/content_833242.htm Growth of China's textile industry slows]". Chinadaily.com.cn. 21 March 2007.</ref>  As of 26 April 2005 ''Asia Times'' article notes that, "In regional giant South Africa, some 300,000 textile workers have lost their jobs in the past two years due to the influx of Chinese goods".<ref>"[http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Global_Economy/GD26Dj01.html Asia strips Africa's textile industry]". Asia Times. 26 April 2005.</ref> The increasing [[Economy of the United States#International trade|U.S. trade deficit]] with China has cost 2.4 million American jobs between 2001 and 2008, according to a study by the [[Economic Policy Institute]] (EPI).<ref>"[http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSN238294820100323 China trade blamed for 2.4 million lost US jobs-report]". Reuters. 23 March 2010.</ref> From 2000 to 2007, the United States had lost a total of 3.2 million manufacturing jobs.<ref>"[http://www.usatoday.com/money/economy/2007-04-20-4155011268_x.htm Factory jobs: 3 million lost since 2000]". USATODAY.com. 20 April 2007.</ref>
 
About 25 million people in the world's 30 richest countries will have lost their jobs between the end of 2007 and the end of 2010 as the economic downturn pushes most countries into [[recession]].<ref>"[http://www.guardian.co.uk/business/2009/sep/16/unemployment-rises-recession Unemployment hits highest since 1995]". 16 September 2009.</ref> In April 2010, the U.S. unemployment rate was 9.9%, but the government's broader U-6 unemployment rate was 17.1%.<ref>"[http://blogs.wsj.com/economics/2010/05/07/broader-u-6-unemployment-rate-increases-to-171-in-april/ Broader U-6 Unemployment Rate Increases to 17.1% in April]". [[The Wall Street Journal]]. 7 May 2010.</ref> There are six unemployed people, on average, for each available job.<ref>"[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/34641146/ns/business-stocks_and_economy/ Unemployment sets a grim record in 2009]". Msnbc.msn.com. 31 December 2009.</ref> In April 2012, the unemployment rate was 4.6% in Japan.<ref>[http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php/Unemployment_statistics Unemployment statistics]. [[Eurostat]]. April 2012.</ref> In a 2012 news story, the ''Financial Post'' reported, "Nearly 75 million youth are unemployed around the world, an increase of more than 4 million since 2007. In the European Union, where a debt crisis followed the financial crisis, the youth unemployment rate rose to 18% last year from 12.5% in 2007, the ILO report shows."<ref>"[http://business.financialpost.com/2012/05/23/global-youth-unemployment-rate-climbs/ Global youth unemployment rate climbs]. ''Financial Post''. 23 May 2012.</ref>
 
==See also==
{{Portal|Business and economics}}
{{columns-list|3|
* [[Basic income guarantee]]
* [[Economics terminology that differs from common usage]]
* [[Effective unemployment rate]]
* [[Employment gap]]
* [[Employment Protection Legislation]]
* [[Employment rate]]
* [[FRED (Federal Reserve Economic Data)]]
* [[Graduate unemployment]]
* [[HIRE Act]]
* [[Job migration]]
* [[Short time]]
* [[List of countries by unemployment rate]]
* [[List of U.S. states by unemployment rate]]
* [[Male unemployment]]
* [[Spatial mismatch]]
* ''[[The End of Work]]''
* [[Training]]
* [[Unemployment extension]]
* [[Voluntary employment]]
* [[Waithood]]
* [[Workfare]]
* [[Youth exclusion]]
* [[Youth unemployment]]
}}
 
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
 
== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |last=Farmer |first=Roger E. A. |chapter=Unemployment |title=Macroeconomics |location=Cincinnati |publisher=South-Western |year=1999 |edition=Second |isbn=0-324-12058-3 |pages=173–192 }}
* {{cite book |first=David |last=Romer |authorlink=David Romer |chapter=Unemployment |title=Advanced Macroeconomics |edition=Fourth |location=New York |publisher=McGraw-Hill |year=2011 |pages=456–512 |isbn=978-0-07-351137-5 }}
* {{cite book |last=Simonazzi |first=A. |authorlink2=Fernando Vianello |last2=Vianello |first2=F. |year=2001 |chapter=Financial Liberalization, the European Single Currency and the Problem of Unemployment |editor1-last=Franzini |editor1-first=R. |editor2-last=Pizzuti |editor2-first=R. F. |title=Globalization, Institutions and Social Cohesion |publisher=Springer |location=Heidelberg |isbn=3-540-67741-0 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Summers |first1=Lawrence H. |authorlink1= Lawrence Summers |editor= [[David R. Henderson]] (ed.) |encyclopedia=[[Concise Encyclopedia of Economics]] |title=Unemployment |url=http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/Unemployment.html |year=2008 |edition= 2nd |publisher=[[Library of Economics and Liberty]]  |isbn=978-0865976658 |oclc=237794267}}
 
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wiktionary|unemployment}}
{{Commons category|Unemployment}}
{{Library resources box
|by=no
|onlinebooks=no
|others=no
|about=yes
|label=Unemployment }}
 
* [http://www.epinet.org/content.cfm/datazone_uicalc_index Economic Policy Institute]
* Historical data
** [http://www.visionofhumanity.org/gpi-data/#/2010/UNEM Thermal maps of the world's unemployment percentage rates] – by country, 2007–2010
* Current data
** [http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/lab_une_rat-labor-unemployment-rate Current unemployment rates by country]
** [http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=251 OECD Unemployment statistics]
** [http://lebanese-economy-forum.com/wdi-gdf-advanced-data-display/show/SL-UEM-TOTL-ZS/ Unemployment statistics] by Lebanese-economy-forum, World Bank data
 
{{Employment}}
{{Economics}}
{{Macroeconomics}}
{{Aspects of capitalism}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2012}}
 
[[Category:Unemployment| ]]
[[Category:Economic problems]]
[[Category:Labor economics]]
[[Category:Personal financial problems]]

Revision as of 16:33, 4 March 2014

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Næste gang jeg bo tættere på hjertet af Vegas, medmindre jeg kommer tilbage, Nike Sko Tilbud Stadium når det cool nok til at udforske Red Rock Canyon-området, som jeg hører er forbløffende (når som Polo Ralph Lauren Outlet helst mellem 1. Oktober og jul, tilsyneladende). Den Larabar ALT bar går statsborger i juni, og jeg ville ikke blive overrasket, hvis flere virksomheder hopper på ærten vognen..

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Et godt alternativ er en "tid i." En tid på indebærer at tage barnet til side for at "gå til et blødt sted" såsom på en sofa at Canada Goose Jakker Sverige putte og falde til ro, med en blød tone at dulme dem og snakke om, hvad der skete (Spivey). Få repræsentation / en agent.

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Det vil være nok til at gøre boliger en vigtig bidragyder til økonomisk vækst, snarere end et træk på det, hjælper skabe konstruktion arbejdspladser og øge salget af apparater og andre produkter, der normalt går med nye boligkøb .. De fleste af dem, jeg kunne godt lide en masse mere var obskure film, der didn få en masse omtale. "siger han af sine medlemmer fra grenen," De didn få det, men de kunne have gjort bedre ", hvis han var klart antyder, havde de set flere af de støtteberettigede film, ligesom

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Hvis du ønsker at høre opskrifter til hvordan man forbereder kød uden salt, så lad mig det vide. Han vil i første omgang blive baseret i New York, men vil flytte til London senere i 2014. Han afslørede også nye beviser i mordet på Teamsters leder Jimmy Hoffa, baseret på krav fra lejemorder Frank Sheeran, der indrømmede at Shawn, og i hans biografi

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Manroulette Facetime kamera. 80, omkring 20 miles øst for Dallas. The Reader Hvem bekymrer sig om efter Anden Verdenskrig i Tyskland? Og efter så mange Holocaust-film, er dette den næste, for det meste uudforsket kapitel. Min musikalske møtrik havde været krakket bred åben .. Sommeren er officielt her, Hers skønheder!

Holdet havde tidligere vundet guldmedalje, slå Canada 5. 3.. Vore studerende atleter er blandt de bedste i NCAA Division III sport, der for nylig har vundet mesterskaber i svømning, tennis og volleyball .. De nøglen til din succes skrivning er at vælge den bedste mulighed for dig, at lade andre gå ..

Premium Medlemmer kan også downloade op til 1000 caches i en enkelt GPX-fil ved hjælp af funktionen Pocket Query .. Kurnit og hans team kurateret guide udvælgelse kuratering kuratorerne, hvis du vil, men så lod han dem gå. ESPN uden for linjerne rapporterede, at en syd Florida mægler betalt Manziel en flad, fem tal gebyr for at underskrive hundredvis af emner før og efter BCS Championship Game i Miami.Three unavngivne kilder fortalte ESPN at Manziel underskrevet mini hjelme, fodbolde, fotos og andre elementer

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Andre føler, at der er absolut plads til forbedring, men sundhedssystemet behøver ikke at blive fuldstændig forvandlet .. Det er det samme, når vi fat på spørgsmålet om var 2011 det varmeste år i de sidste 600 år. Jeg var ikke forsøger at få en vis mængde vægt jeg bare give slip på nogen kontrol eller kosten restriktioner..

En tot ser ud til far for tidskoder Timberland Agentur Danmark om, hvordan man opfører sig. Først får din metrisk straight. Hvem er du mennesker, der så heftigt benægter klimaforandringerne? Hvorfor er det sådan en følelsesmæssig og vred problem for dig? Er du videnskabsmænd, der studerer klimaet og ved noget, som de andre forskere ikke gør? .

I stedet er det en konservativ tilgang til at afslutte New Balance Århus kapitel 11 konkurs, og at størkne eksisterende forretning og markedspenetration. Et af de store seksuelle spørgsmål, der drøftes i hele Skriften er begær. I et andet vers, Lut rådede dem: »Af alle skabninger i verden, vil du nærmer hanner, og lade dem, som Allah har skabt for dig at være dine venner? Nej, du er et folk overtræde (alle grænser)! " .

Finanspolitikken er den måde, hvorpå en regering justerer sine udgifter niveauer og skattesatser for at overvåge og påvirke et lands økonomi. Hvis ikke, gøre nogle forskning og finde den billigste plan, der vil arbejde for dig. Han opfordrede dommeren til at "tage en mere velordnet tilgang end den nuværende vanvid." "Utah skal have lov til at følge den demokratisk valgte definition af ægteskabet," sagde han i 2004 homoseksuelle ægteskaber ban.Lott senere sagde, at staten var skuffet over Shelby s .

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Jeg er blevet opmuntret og formanet. Ifølge Gallup, nogle 99% af amerikanerne tror, ​​at en stærk økonomi og arbejdsmarkedet bør være præsident Obamas nummer ét mål i sin anden valgperiode. Kentucky republikanske senator One denne seneste indrejse, som er tilgængelig for både nuværende og næste generations systemer, de har forladt realisme helt til en ny alternativ fremtid indstilling, hvor Mellemøsten er blevet nuked og Amerika primære anatagonist er føderationen, en samling af .

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" sagde han 99U. Parajumpers På Salg

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Vi har udviklet Hoste Hygiejne-initiativet, som omfatter WASH / 2 protokoller baseret på UNICEF program for vand sanitet og hygiejne. Der findes mange forskellige metoder til forældre, som vi konfronteres med i det moderne samfund. Den overlever hovedsagelig i første persons spørgsmål, hvor det med fordel adskiller "Skal jeg åbne vinduet? (Som et tilbud eller forslag) fra 'Vil jeg brug for et håndklæde? .

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Det ligner, at der vil ske .. Den utilsigtede konsekvens af at forsøge at rense ud en sketchy offshore banking system er, at udenlandske investorer vil være meget tilbageholdende med at investere i Cypern igen en eller anden grund .. Jeg bruger Paleo at beskrive mine personlige retningslinjer spise, som jeg .

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Bitmapbilleder i almindelighed ikke i sig selv understøtter gennemsigtighed. Så har eleverne mærke fotografier med de datoer, steder og korte beskrivelser af de vandringer repræsenteret af hver. Skadestuen gav mig doseringsinstruktionerne for at blande Tylenol og ibuprofen (som jeg fint med jeg gjort det en hel del gange nu), men jeg ikke sikker på, jeg har tillid til dem med doseringen (hæren læge ughh! Jeg kan tælle de gange, de begik fejl) .

Hvis ja, den direkte 0.34 graders stigning fra en stigning i CO2 til 560 ppm vil blive reduceret ikke med effekten af ​​vanddamp .. Marked og for Washington at slappe af restriktioner på eksport af amerikanske lavet højteknologiske varer. På hendes nu deaktiveret Twitter-konto, Sacco kaldte sig en "ballademager på side" kendt for sin "høj latter op." .

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"Tag ikke fejl, er ayatollaherne i Iran Beats By Dre Danmark Fona tester vores moralske forsvar," Romney sagde. Spørg din læge eller ernæringsekspert til en blodprøve på dine niveauer. Afrunding Louis Vuitton Solbriller Til Salg ud Kvinders Fysik vagtplan er Ally Baker, Roxie Beckles, Erica Blockman, Cinzia Clapp, Jessica Gaines, Karin Hobbs, Cea Anna Kerr, Zoa Linsey, Beni Lopez, Jalya McDermott, Akane Nigro Ismeal, Sheena Ohlig, Antonia Perdikakis, Jennifer Robinson .

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sagde han Timberland Boots Kids

Vi er overbeviste tilhængere af forfatningen for De Forenede Stater, og for amerikanske værdier for adskillelse af kirke og stat.. Han øjeblikket favoriserer japanske aktier, såsom produktionsvirksomhed Shimano, fordi han mener, de billige. Dernæst gør 20 minutter af vekslende mellem høj intensitet bevægelser såsom sprællemænd eller kører på plads, og lav intensitet recovery perioder, hvor du gør hæl vandhaner eller baby lunges.

Snarere end øjeæble de mønstre, forskerne løb billederne via et edb-program. Så da Cadmus stadig behov for vand til at rense dyret, gik han selv. Regnede juni 27 29, 2012 på Sheraton Dallas Hotel, Dallas, Texas. Fokus Timberland Boots Kids i det mindste i de første måneder af amning, bør ikke være på at få barnet til at sove igennem om natten, men snarere på at lære at håndtere denne normale nattetid spædbarn behavior.thank dig til deling! efter mit DDS 4m APPT dr siger jeg nødt til at klippe ud natten fodring jeg følte trist jeg skal have til at forsøge at lem hende! men artiklen gør mig tillid im gør det rigtige, når hun vågner op i midten af ​​nightthank dig til deling! efter mit DDS 4m APPT dr siger jeg nødt til at klippe ud natten fodring jeg følte trist jeg skal have til at forsøge at lem hende! men artiklen gør mig tillid im gør det rigtige, Abercrombie And Fitch Denmark når hun vågner op i midten af ​​nightThis stedet og tredjeparter, der annoncerer på denne hjemmeside kan indsamle og bruge oplysninger om dine besøg på dette websted og andre websteder for at levere annoncer om varer og tjenester af interesse for dig ...

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Når du har brug for noget til at være på en bestemt måde, det sætter en boks omkring det, og kvæler andre muligheder. Andre er velkendt på grund af fælles latin eller fransk oprindelse:. Dette gælder især, når en person med erfaring intens frygt og hjælpeløshed; krop og sind tager tid at integrere alle der hændt ..

Du kan også bruge Mit Apple-id for at ændre dine personlige oplysninger, så som din postadresse eller e-mail-adresse. Det bliver om virksomhedernes sponsorering eller noget lignende that.Could Suplee vedrører noget hans karakter gik igennem i form af at skulle til tider bringe hans kunst? .

I en december 2010 e-mail til EPA ledelse, sagde han, "På grund af de seneste begivenheder, som du sikkert har læst om, er jeg i Pakistan. Hun var i stand til at binde ud af Clayton County Jail, politi said.Sexually eksplicit scene 'stød familier på' frosset «showingGoogle glas iført kunde smidt ud af dinerDead" baby vågner grædende i begravelsen homePolice: Mor skudt, dræbt datter efter fejl af hende .

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I virkeligheden, i det meste af deres vågne timer, blev jeg holder dem, men når svøb virkelig reddet min forstand var i løbet af deres nationale handlingsplaner. Dette er bestemt ikke play profil stort behov baby (eller de fleste andre spædbørn). Den SIEV X, som sank i oktober 2001 og resulterede i 353 dødsfald, havde et betydeligt antal af ægtefæller og børn af TPV indehavere om bord ..

Årtusinde f.Kr. Hvis der ikke er blevet sået, og derfor meget lidt høstede, vil du indse det er tid til at få travlt. Gulv til loft dette sted har kanoner på hver tomme af væggene og på gulvet så godt. På Tipp City Public Library på Main Street. Omkring 90% af ankel forstuvninger er inversion skader.

Tilsæt ris nudler og kog i 2 3 minutter eller indtil de er møre. ". Juni 2007 en vis byggefirma skrev et forslag med referencenummer: RES/P/32/I / . Men det var ikke sandt. Det alle behov GOP Tea Party innovation opfindsomhed til at passere Job lov til at gøre levering af garanti for job til døden opfylde vigtigste ønske om at gøre bedst af alle menneskelige aktiver til gavn .

Det er den enkle, men ikke altid let opgave at gøre din drøm til virkelighed ved at gøre det på daglig basis .. Det er meget almindeligt for MTHFR genet for ikke at arbejde så godt som det burde. Vi betaler en løn, der giver os mulighed for at tiltrække nogle af de største talenter i sprogservice industrien.

Dette antyder nu, at salt er også en risikofaktor, "Hafler sagde .. New Hampshire, Maine Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas Missouri, Illinois, Iowa Minnesota, Wisconsin Texas, Oklahoma, New Mexico Kansas, Colorado, Nebraska North / South Dakota, Montana, Wyoming Washington, Oregon, Idaho Utah, Arizona Californien, Nevada Alaska og Hawaii Seneste artikler og blogindlæg sitet Hjælp Holiday Helper 2013 familier i nød Nike Air Max Thea Graviditet og fødsel Fertilitet Infertilitet forsøger at blive gravide familieplanlægning jeg gravid Deltag din forfaldsdagen Club! September 2014 August 2014 Juli 2014 Juni 2014 Maj 2014 April 2014 Marts 2014 Februar 2014 Januar 2014 December 2013 Birth Professionals Doulas Jordemødre Barsel Undervisere Fødsel og Beyond Fødsel Stories homebirth VBAC Kejsersnit Fødsel Uden hjælp Barsel Healing Fødsel Trauma fødselsdepression Forståelse Omskæring Intakt Care Intactivism Baby Liv Med en Baby NICU Preemie Parenting amning Amning Udfordringer Lactivism Stofbleer Elimination Kommunikation Babywearing Co sove og Family Bed Baby Sundhed Vaccinationer I Ikke vaccinere Selektiv Forsinket Vaccination Vaccination på Schedule Vaccinationer Debat Toddler Livet med en Toddler Toddler Sundhed Amning Beyond Infancy Child Led Fravænning Toddler Ernæring potte Learning Barndom og Beyond The Childhood Years Preteens og Teens Uddannelse læring i skolen Waldorf Montessori Andet (Reggio Emilia, Sudbury, Den Demokratiske) Læring på Hjem og Beyond Manglende skolegang Gentle Disciplin Barn Teenager Sundhed Mom Parenting blive hjemme forældre arbejde fra hjemmet Forældre arbejde derhjemme job Board Søger arbejde Jobmuligheder wahm Connect Working and Student Forældre Parenting Multiples Adoptive og Foster Parenting Blended og Step Familie Parenting Multicultural Familier Queer Parenting Parenting Gifted Child Special Needs Parenting Single Parenting Spørg eksperterne Judy Arnall Randall Neustaedter Bob Sears Jennifer Karon Flores Laura Markham Linda Folden Palmer Marilyn Milos Kvinder Sundhed Natural Body Care Fitness og Weight Management Mental Health Allergier Dental Talk blandt Abercrombie Danmark Job os Tal blandt os Personlig vækst spiritualitet Religiøs Studier sorg og tab Spil Natural Living Mindful Hjem Arts håndværk Workshops Bøger, Musik og Medier Tv Book Clubs TV Free Nøjsomhed Finances Genbrug Genbrug Organiser Declutter Country Living / off the grid Havearbejde Kæledyr Ernæring og god spise Opskrifter Traditionelle fødevarer vegetariske og veganske Nike Roshe Run Pink madplaner Family Safety Natural Parenting Nyheder aktivisme og nyheder købe, sælge, Handel WAHMarket WAHMarket Trading Post Babywearing Børn Tøj Crafts Bleer Stofbleer Supplies Hjemmeundervisning Natural Hjem Body Care, husholdningsartikler og elektronik legetøj, spil, bøger, musik og andre medier Diverse Canada Trading Post Free For forsendelse In Search Of (ISO) Swaps Mothering Co ops Co op Chat Co op Arkiv Arkiv Fødsel og graviditet Arkiv Forfaldsdato Klubber 2009 2012 Januar 2009 Februar 2009 Marts 2009 April 2009 Maj 2009 Juni 2009 Juli 2009 August 2009 September 2009 Oktober 2009 November 2009 December 2009 Januar 2010 Februar 2010 Marts 2010 April 2010 Maj 2010 Juni 2010 Juli 2010 August 2010 September 2010 Oktober 2010 November 2010 December 2010 Januar 2011 Februar 2011 Beats Pill Marts 2011 April 2011 Maj 2011 Juni 2011 Juli 2011 August 2011 September 2011 Oktober 2011 November 2011 December 2011 Januar 2012 Februar 2012 Marts 2012 April 2012 Forfaldsdato Klubber 2004 2008 marts 2004 april 2004 maj 2004 juni 2004 juli 2004 august 2004 september 2004 oktober 2004 november 2004 december 2004 januar 2005 februar 2005 marts 2005 april 2005 maj 2005 juni 2005 august 2005 juli 2005 september 2005 oktober 2005 november 2005 december 2005 januar 2006 februar 2006 april 2006 marts 2006 maj 2006 juni 2006 juli 2006 august 2006 September 2006 Oktober 2006 November 2006 December 2006 Januar 2007 Februar 2007 Marts 2007 April 2007 Maj 2007 Juni 2007 Juli 2007 August 2007 September 2007 Oktober 2007 November 2007 December 2007 Januar 2008 Februar 2008 Marts 2008 April 2008 Maj 2008 Juni 2008 Juli 2008 August 2008 September 2008 Oktober 2008 November 2008 December 2008 Birth Professionals Diverse Vaccinationer Arkiv Skoldkopper difteri, kighoste, stivkrampe Hepatitis HIB og Prevnar mæslinger, fåresyge, røde hunde Polio Kopper Beskæftiger sig med din læge personlige oplevelser Selektivt / Forsinket Vaccination Nyfødt Test Medicin Immunitet Kend dine rettigheder Ressourcer Hvordan du beslutter dig? Everything Else Forældre som partnere Arkiv Aktivisme Arkiv Spørg en intuitiv Dads Mødre Skrivning Group Skrivning for Web Natural Family Living Anmeldelser homeschool Curriculum og ressourcer Anmeldelser Babywearing anmeldelser Naturlig Hjem Krop Anmeldelser Biz Opps Services Anmeldelser Stofbleer Anmeldelser naturlig familie Living Workshops familier i nød..

"Jeg vil være klar til at lytte Parajumpers Kodiak Menn

Men Dychtwald siger demografiske ændringer landets betyder logikken holder ikke længere op. Definitionen af ​​terrorisme efter de relevante bestemmelser i engelsk ret synes at gælde for denne sag, men igen, vil det være for en dommer at afgøre .. Diabetes specialister enige om, at fordi blodsukkermålinger dips og spikes er intimt knyttet til carb forbrug, omhyggeligt valg og begrænse nogle kulhydrater er vigtig ...

Hun fik sit kørekort sidste fredag. Målet med denne metode er at hjælpe den enkelte ansigt deres frygt og indse, at frygten objektet ikke vil skade dem .. Du er nødt til at arbejde inden for en ramme for corporate .. På nuværende Ontario regering bruger mere end $ 12,000 per elev på primær og grundskole. Jun 22, 2011 Afregning af en uncontacted indfødt stamme i Javari Valley, Brasilien. Vi fandt en lokal grøn rengøring virksomhed, der starter nye kunder fra ved "dyb rengøring" hele hjemmet ikke én gang, men to gange i løbet af deres første besøg (for at få, hvad nasties løsne op og re cirkulerer i første sweep)..

Jeg vil ikke komme ind på detaljerne i skaden. Når dit barn er i stand til at have kontrol over hoved, som er en af ​​de første tegn på, at de er i stand til at introducere fast føde til deres kost. Holmes, hurtigt sporet Utah appel, men de sagde, de ville ikke stoppe ægteskaber i mellemtiden skriftligt, at staten ville have en hård tid at bevise, at lade ægteskaber gå videre vil medføre "uoprettelig skade", eller at den havde et godt skud .

Konkurs Court Parajumpers Kodiak Menn for District of Delaware i første kvartal af 2014. "Hun legede med sine børn, og hvis de kom i problemer, ville hun rulle op hendes ærme og sige, 'Sig det til armen," sagde Byrne .. I en fantastisk forræderi inden for en familie, hvor top politisk aide Rove er royalty har Bushies været sneering på hans pre valget glad snak om, at den filippinske regering ville holde Senatet og Nike Roshe Run Woven tage en lille hit i Parlamentet, både hurtigt at blive kørt af Demokraterne .

Så hun åbnede sættet med stor forventning, kun for at opdage hurtigt, at hun fandt de tre dufte alle at være "så grov, at de Hollister Tøj giver mig hovedpine.". Der kan også være nogle klare dræning kommer fra midtpunktet i det bid. Sid med ham New Balance Udsalg 410 på kantsten eller i din bil, og sige, "Jeg vil være klar til at lytte, når du holder op med at græde." .

De dømme ting, der nemt kan måles og rote lært. Husk, at dette agentur kun administrerer testen. Desuden efterforskerne identificeret to delmængder, en gruppe, der havde den maksimale eksponering for vacciner i løbet af deres første syv måneder af livet, og sammenlignet dem med en matchet rettidig gruppe, der havde, tro mod deres navn, mindst rettidig udsættelse for vacciner og modtaget .