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| {{for|the Congolese experimental rocket family|Troposphere (rocket family)}}
| | == Buy New Balance and crying. Ask the Wilpons. Once created == |
| [[File:Endeavour silhouette STS-130.jpg|thumb|400px|right||[[Space Shuttle Endeavour|Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'']] appears to straddle the [[stratosphere]] and [[mesosphere]] in this photo. "The orange layer is the troposphere, where all of the weather and clouds which we typically watch and experience are generated and contained. This orange layer gives way to the whitish stratosphere and then into the mesosphere."<ref>{{cite web|title=ISS022-E-062672 caption|url=http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/gallery/images/shuttle/sts-130/html/iss022e062672.html|publisher=NASA|accessdate=21 September 2012}}</ref> (The shuttle is actually orbiting at more than 200 miles in altitude, far above this transition layer.)]]
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| [[Image:EarthAtmosphereBig.jpg|thumb|50px|right|Earth atmosphere diagram showing the exosphere and other layers. The layers are to scale. From Earth's surface to the top of the stratosphere (50km) is just under 1% of Earth's radius.]]
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| The '''troposphere''' is the lowest portion of [[Earth's atmosphere]]. It contains approximately 80% of the [[atmosphere]]'s [[mass]] and 99% of its [[water vapour]] and [[particulate|aerosols]].<ref>McGraw-Hill Concise Encyclopedia of Science & Technology. (1984). Troposhere. "It contains about four-fifths of the mass of the whole atmosphere."</ref>
| | This can create havoc for the fantasy team, however we offer plenty of options to combat that including the option to take a 3 week holiday in the middle of your season.. Sometimes, identifying great dividend stocks sounds like a similar task due to its relative subjectivity. <br><br>OpenCoin is a for profit company, which will make a nice income if Ripple takes off; I arrived at that bit in a minute. Zero restrictions and fast to build. These early half bloods would look familiar enough along with a small population of Japanese of european descent could have survived. <br><br>These are used in all dishes made from chicken, meat, vegetables or fruits. Improve your Mission Statement93. The voting method used was average voting. Total revenue from the above hours 126.18 all from adsense. The strategic importance and project plan for your web efforts will largely determine the size and skill depth of your site development team. <br><br>Pause here, and think about that for a minute. Transportation fuels are sold under the Ultramar brand through a network of 791 outlets throughout eastern Canada. He admits to already owning a dozen or so.. I want it to be a cooperative relationship, honest and happy and open, the kind that makes me enthusiastic [http://www.interiorcurtaincentre.co.uk/images/class.asp?u=110-Buy-New-Balance Buy New Balance] about classroom volunteering and happy to tuck a nice big Target gift card into her Christmas card.. <br><br>From he then went on to score 16 fifties and a single century which was against India at Lords in 2002. While he was doing that I figured we weren going anywhere till I backed on the tiniest road I had ever been on. Fox Sports Official Online Shop has an exceptional collection of University of Arizona Merchandise, gear, and Clothing featuring only licensed products and stuff for Wildcat Fans. <br><br>For instance, if you have a blog post describing a painting that you simply completed of the [http://www.interiorcurtaincentre.co.uk/images/class.asp?u=163-New-Balance-Stockists-Manchester New Balance Stockists Manchester] Golden Gate Bridge at sunset and an art buyer in Florida goes to Google and searches for "painting of Golden Gate Bridge at sunset", there is a very good chance that your blog entry can look pretty high in the rankings. <br><br>As mentioned above, you play as the princess and your control options are [http://www.opmer.com/xml/cache.asp?id=45 New Balance New Zealand] limited to moving around your [http://www.interiorcurtaincentre.co.uk/images/class.asp?u=82-New-Balance-Womens New Balance Womens] cell, sighing, and crying. Ask the Wilpons. Once created, you'll be able to view an individuals list of friends using their profile on the Social Network Site. <br><br>Vincent Iacopino, director of research for Physicians for Human Rights, known as the hyper extension of the arms behind the rear "clear and simple torture." The ecu Court of Human Rights found Turkey guilty of torture in 1996 inside a case of Palestinian hanging a method Iacopino said is used worldwide but named for its alleged use by Israel within the Palestinian territories.<ul> |
| The average depth of the troposphere is approximately {{convert|17|km|abbr=on}} in the middle latitudes. It is deeper in the [[tropics]], up to {{convert|20|km|abbr=on}}, and shallower near the [[polar regions]], approximately {{convert|7|km|abbr=on}} in winter. The lowest part of the troposphere, where [[friction]] with the Earth's surface influences air flow, is the [[planetary boundary layer]]. This layer is typically a few hundred metres to {{convert|2|km|abbr=on}} deep depending on the [[landform]] and time of day. The border between the troposphere and [[stratosphere]], called the [[tropopause]], is a [[inversion (meteorology)|temperature inversion]].<ref name="DLA">Danielson, Levin, and Abrams, ''Meteorology'', McGraw Hill, 2003</ref>
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| | | <li>[http://yuvabharatshakti.com/Main_Page http://yuvabharatshakti.com/Main_Page]</li> |
| The word troposphere derives from the {{Lang-el|''tropos''}} for "change" reflecting the fact that [[turbulence|turbulent]] mixing plays an important role in the troposphere's structure and behaviour. Most of the phenomena we associate with day-to-day [[weather]] occur in the troposphere.<ref name="DLA"/>
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| | | <li>[http://enseignement-lsf.com/spip.php?article64#forum18276769 http://enseignement-lsf.com/spip.php?article64#forum18276769]</li> |
| ==Pressure and temperature structure==
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| [[Image:Troposphere CIMG1853.JPG|thumb|left|200px|A view of Earth's troposphere from an [[airplane]].]]
| | <li>[http://bbs.xinyangchuangtou.com/forum.php?mod=viewthread&tid=57969 http://bbs.xinyangchuangtou.com/forum.php?mod=viewthread&tid=57969]</li> |
| [[Image:AtmosphCirc2.png|thumb|left|200px|Atmospheric circulation shown with three large cells.]]
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| | | <li>[http://bbs.zzabc.cn/forum.php?mod=viewthread&tid=770690 http://bbs.zzabc.cn/forum.php?mod=viewthread&tid=770690]</li> |
| ===Composition===
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| The chemical composition of the troposphere is essentially uniform, with the notable exception of [[water vapor]]. The source of water vapour is at the surface through the processes of [[evaporation]] and [[transpiration]]. Furthermore the temperature of the troposphere decreases with height, and [[saturation vapor pressure]] decreases strongly as temperature drops, so the amount of water vapor that can exist in the atmosphere decreases strongly with height. Thus the proportion of water vapour is normally greatest near the surface and decreases with height. | | <li>[http://pppppirn.com/news/html/?269640.html http://pppppirn.com/news/html/?269640.html]</li> |
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| ===Pressure===
| | </ul> |
| The pressure of the atmosphere is maximum at [[sea level]] and decreases with higher altitude. This is because the atmosphere is very nearly in [[hydrostatic equilibrium]], so that the pressure is equal to the weight of air above a given point. The change in pressure with height, therefore can be equated to the density with this [[Fluid statics|hydrostatic]] equation:<ref name="LL">Landau and Lifshitz, ''Fluid Mechanics'', Pergamon, 1979</ref>
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| :<math> \frac{dp}{dz} = -\rho g_n = - \frac {mpg}{RT}</math>
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| where:
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| :*''g<sub>n</sub>'' is the [[standard gravity]]
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| :*''ρ'' is the [[density]]
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| :*''z'' is the [[altitude]]
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| :*''p'' is the [[pressure]]
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| :*''R'' is the [[gas constant]]
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| :*''T'' is the [[thermodynamic temperature|thermodynamic (absolute) temperature]]
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| :*''m'' is the [[molar mass]]
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| Since temperature in principle also depends on altitude, one needs a second equation to determine the pressure as a function of height, as discussed in the next section.*
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| ===Temperature===
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| {{main|Lapse rate}}
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| [[File:Troposphere Temperature Trend1.jpg|thumb|This image shows the temperature trend in the Middle Troposphere as measured by a series of satellite-based instruments between January 1979 and December 2005. The middle troposphere is centered around 5 kilometers above the surface. Oranges and yellows dominate the troposphere image, indicating that the air nearest the Earth’s surface warmed during the period.Source: [http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=7839]]]
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| The [[temperature]] of the troposphere generally decreases as altitude increases. The rate at which the temperature decreases, <math>-dT/dz</math>, is called the environmental lapse rate (ELR).
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| The ELR is nothing more than the difference in temperature between the surface and the tropopause divided by the height. The reason for this temperature difference is that most absorption of the sun's energy occurs at the ground which then heats the lower levels of the atmosphere, and the radiation of heat occurs at the top of the atmosphere cooling the earth, this process maintaining the overall heat balance of the earth.
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| As parcels of air in the atmosphere rise and fall, they also undergo changes in temperature for reasons described below. The rate of change of the temperature in the parcel may be less than or more than the ELR.
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| When a parcel of air rises, it expands, because the pressure is lower at higher altitudes. As the air parcel expands, it pushes on the air around it, doing [[Work (thermodynamics)|work]]; but generally it does not gain [[heat]] in exchange from its environment, because its [[thermal conductivity]] is low (such a process is called [[Adiabatic process|adiabatic]]). Since the parcel does work and gains no heat, it loses [[energy]], and so its temperature decreases. (The reverse, of course, will be true for a sinking parcel of air.) <ref name="DLA"/>
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| Since the heat exchanged <math>dQ</math> is related to the [[entropy]] change <math>dS</math> by <math>dQ=T dS</math>, the equation governing the temperature as a function of height for a thoroughly mixed atmosphere is
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| :<math> \frac{dS}{dz} = 0 </math> | |
| where ''S'' is the [[entropy]]. The rate at which temperature decreases with height under such conditions is called the adiabatic [[lapse rate]].
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| For ''dry'' air, which is approximately an [[ideal gas]], we can proceed further. The adiabatic equation for an ideal gas is <ref name="LL1">Landau and Lifshitz, ''Statistical Physics Part 1'', Pergamon, 1980</ref>
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| :<math> p(z)T(z)^{-\frac{\gamma}{\gamma-1}}=constant </math>
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| where <math>\gamma</math> is the [[heat capacity ratio]] (<math>\gamma</math>=7/5, for air). Combining with the equation for the pressure, one arrives at the [[Lapse rate#Dry adiabatic lapse rate|dry adiabatic lapse rate]],<ref>Kittel and Kroemer, ''Thermal Physics'', Freeman, 1980; chapter 6, problem 11</ref>
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| :<math>\frac{dT}{dz}=- \frac{mg}{R} \frac{\gamma-1}{\gamma}=-9.8^{\circ}\mathrm{C}/\mathrm{km}</math>
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| If the air contains [[water vapor]], then cooling of the air can cause the water to condense, and the behavior is no longer that of an ideal gas. If the air is at the [[Saturation vapor pressure|saturated vapor pressure]], then the rate at which temperature drops with height is called the [[Lapse rate#Saturated adiabatic lapse rate|saturated adiabatic lapse rate]]. More generally, the actual rate at which the temperature drops with altitude is called the [[Lapse rate#Environmental lapse rate|environmental lapse rate]].
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| In the troposphere, the average environmental lapse rate is a drop of about 6.5 °C for every 1 km (1,000 meters) in increased height.<ref name="DLA"/>
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| The environmental lapse rate (the actual rate at which temperature drops with height, <math>dT/dz</math>) is not usually equal to the adiabatic lapse rate (or correspondingly, <math>dS/dz \ne 0</math>). If the upper air is warmer than predicted by the adiabatic lapse rate (<math>dS/dz > 0</math>), then when a parcel of air rises and expands, it will arrive at the new height at a lower temperature than its surroundings. In this case, the air parcel is denser than its surroundings, so it sinks back to its original height, and the air is stable against being lifted. If, on the contrary, the upper air is cooler than predicted by the adiabatic lapse rate, then when the air parcel rises to its new height it will have a higher temperature and a lower density than its surroundings, and will continue to accelerate upward.<ref name="DLA"/><ref name="LL"/>
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| The troposphere is heated from below by [[latent heat]], [[outgoing longwave radiation|longwave radiation]], and [[sensible heat]]. Surplus heating and vertical expansion of the troposphere occurs in the tropics. At middle latitudes, tropospheric temperatures decrease from an average of 15°C at sea level to about -55°C at the [[tropopause]]. At the [[Geographical pole|pole]]s, tropospheric temperature only decreases from an average of 0ºC at sea level to about -45°C at the tropopause. At the [[equator]], tropospheric temperatures decrease from an average of 20ºC at sea level to about -70 to -75°C at the tropopause. The troposphere is thinner at the poles and thicker at the equator. The average thickness of the tropical tropopause is roughly 7 kilometers greater than the average tropopause thickness at the poles. <ref name="ZonalFlowDef">{{Cite web
| |
| |title= The Climate of the Earth
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| |publisher= Rowman and Littlefield Publishers Inc.
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| |author= Paul E. Lydolph
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| |date= 1985
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| |page= 12
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| }}</ref>
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| ===Tropopause===
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| {{main|Tropopause}}
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| The tropopause is the boundary region between the troposphere and the stratosphere.
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| Measuring the temperature change with height through the troposphere and the stratosphere identifies the location of the tropopause. In the troposphere, temperature decreases with altitude. In the stratosphere, however, the temperature remains constant for a while and then increases with altitude. The region of the atmosphere where the lapse rate changes from positive (in the troposphere) to negative (in the stratosphere), is defined as the tropopause.<ref name="DLA"/> Thus, the tropopause is an [[Inversion (meteorology)|inversion layer]], and there is little mixing between the two layers of the atmosphere.
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| ==Atmospheric flow==
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| The flow of the atmosphere generally moves in a west to east direction. This however can often become interrupted, creating a more north to south or south to north flow. These scenarios are often described in meteorology as zonal or meridional. These terms, however, tend to be used in reference to localised areas of atmosphere (at a [[synoptic scale]]). A fuller explanation of the flow of atmosphere around the Earth as a whole can be found in the three-cell model. | |
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| ===Zonal Flow===
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| <!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Zonalflow.gif|thumb|right|250 px|A [[zonal flow regime]]. Note the dominant west-to-east flow as shown in the 500 hPa height pattern.]] -->A [[zonal flow regime]] is the [[meteorology|meteorological]] term meaning that the general flow pattern is west to east along the Earth's latitude lines, with weak shortwaves embedded in the flow.<ref name="ZonalFlowDef">{{Cite web | |
| |title= American Meteorological Society Glossary - Zonal Flow
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| |publisher= [http://www.allenpress.com Allen Press Inc.]
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| |date= June 2000
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| |url= http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=zonal-flow1
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| |accessdate= 2006-10-03
| |
| }}</ref> The use of the word "zone" refers to the flow being along the Earth's latitudinal "zones". This pattern can buckle and thus become a meridional flow.
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| ===Meridional flow===
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| [[Image:Meridionalflowpattern.jpg|thumb|right|250 px|Meridional Flow pattern of October 23, 2003. Note the amplified troughs and ridges in this 500 hPa height pattern.]]
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| When the zonal flow buckles, the atmosphere can flow in a more longitudinal (or meridional) direction, and thus the term "[[meridional flow]]" arises. Meridional flow patterns feature strong, amplified troughs and ridges, with more north-south flow in the general pattern than west-to-east flow.<ref name="MeridonialFlow">{{Cite web
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| |title= American Meteorological Society Glossary - Meridional Flow
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| |publisher= [http://www.allenpress.com Allen Press Inc.]
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| |date= June 2000
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| |url= http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=meridional-flow1
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| |accessdate= 2006-10-03
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| }}</ref>
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| ===Three-cell model===
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| {{Main|Atmospheric circulation}}
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| The three cells model attempts to describe the actual flow of the Earth's atmosphere as a whole. It divides the Earth into the tropical ([[Hadley cell]]), mid latitude ([[Ferrel cell]]), and polar ([[Polar vortex|polar cell]]) regions, dealing with energy flow and global circulation. Its fundamental principle is that of balance - the energy that the Earth absorbs from the sun each year is equal to that which it loses back into space, but this however is not a balance precisely maintained in each latitude due to the varying strength of the sun in each "cell" resulting from the tilt of the Earth's axis in relation to its orbit. It demonstrates that a pattern emerges to mirror that of the ocean - the tropics do not continue to get warmer because the atmosphere transports warm air poleward and cold air equatorward, the effect of which appears to be that of heat and moisture distribution around the planet.<ref name="ThreecellEncarta">{{Cite web
| |
| |title= Meteorology - MSN Encarta, "Energy Flow and Global Circulation"
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| |publisher= [http://encarta.msn.com Encarta.Msn.com]
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| |url= http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761571037_3/Meteorology.html#s12
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| |accessdate= 2006-10-13
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| |archiveurl= http://www.webcitation.org/5kwbSx0AG
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| |archivedate= 2009-10-31
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| |deadurl= yes
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| }}</ref>
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| ==Synoptic scale observations and concepts==
| |
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| ===Forcing===
| |
| Forcing is a term used by meteorologists to describe the situation where a change or an event in one part of the atmosphere causes a strengthening change in another part of the atmosphere. It is usually used to describe connections between upper, middle or lower levels (such as upper-level divergence causing lower level convergence in cyclone formation), but can sometimes also be used to describe such connections over distance rather than height alone. In some respects, [[teleconnection]]s could be considered a type of forcing.
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| ===Divergence and convergence===
| |
| An area of convergence is one in which the total mass of air is increasing with time, resulting in an increase in pressure at locations below the convergence level (recall that atmospheric pressure is just the total weight of air above a given point). Divergence is the opposite of convergence - an area where the total mass of air is decreasing with time, resulting in falling pressure in regions below the area of divergence. Where divergence is occurring in the upper atmosphere, there will be air coming in to try to balance the net loss of mass (this is called the principle of mass conservation), and there is a resulting upward motion (positive vertical velocity). Another way to state this is to say that regions of upper air divergence are conducive to lower level convergence, cyclone formation, and positive vertical velocity. Therefore, identifying regions of upper air divergence is an important step in forecasting the formation of a surface low pressure area.
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| ==References==
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| {{Reflist}}
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| ==External links==
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| {{portal|Atmospheric sciences}}
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| {{Wiktionary}}
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| * [http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/earth/atmosphere.html Composition of the Atmosphere], from the University of Tennessee Physics dept.
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| * [http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~doetqp-p/courses/env440/env440_2/lectures/lec32/lec32.htm Chemical Reactions in the Atmosphere]
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| {{Earth's atmosphere}}
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| [[Category:Atmosphere]]
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| [[Category:Atmospheric thermodynamics]]
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| [[Category:Atmosphere of Earth]]
| |
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