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| | == φυσικά Nike Air Max 2013 == |
| {{Infobox scientist
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| | name = Christiaan Huygens
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| | image = Christiaan Huygens.jpg
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| | image_size = 200px
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| | caption = Christiaan Huygens by [[Bernard Vaillant]], [[Hofwijck|Museum Hofwijck]], [[Voorburg]]
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| | birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1629|04|14}}
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| | birth_place = [[The Hague]], [[Dutch Republic]]
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| | death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|1695|07|08|1629|04|14}}
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| | death_place = [[The Hague]], [[Dutch Republic]]
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| | residence = Netherlands, France
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| | nationality = [[Netherlands|Dutch]]
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| | field = [[Physics]]<br/> [[Mathematics]] <br /> [[Astronomy]] <br /> [[Horology]]
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| | work_institution = [[Royal Society of London]]<br>[[French Academy of Sciences]]
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| | alma_mater = [[Leiden University|University of Leiden]]<br>[[University of Angers]]
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| | known_for = [[Titan (moon)|Titan]]<br />Explanation [[Saturn's rings]]<br />[[Centrifugal force]]<br />[[Collision]] formulae<br />[[Pendulum clock]]<br />[[Huygens–Fresnel principle]]<br />[[Wave theory]]<br />[[Birefringence]]<br />[[Evolute]]<br />[[Huygenian eyepiece]]<br />[[31 equal temperament]] musical tuning
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| | influences = [[Galileo Galilei]]<br/>[[René Descartes]]<br/>[[Frans van Schooten]]
| | Αυτό που φάνηκε τόσο τρομακτικό, πριν η κλήση έγινε πολύ εύκολο. "Προφανώς έτσι 13., Τα αποτελέσματα της επιστημονικής ανάλυσης έδειξε δείγματα που λαμβάνονται από το χώρο περιέχονται υψηλά επίπεδα των δύο ραδιενεργά ισότοπα στροντίου 90 και καισίου 137.. <br><br>"Θα μπορούσαμε να δούμε τη ζωή αυτού του ανθρώπου ήταν σε κίνδυνο, όπως ο ίδιος πιάστηκε σε ένα μεγάλο φούσκωμα και τα κύματα που σκάνε [http://www.hellasinternet.com/templates/userDefine.htm Nike Air Max 2013] στα βράχια», είπε ο κ. Gatt. 2. Ωστόσο, άλλοι ειδικοί αμφισβήτησαν γρήγορα τα ευρήματα, πυροδοτώντας μια ανανεωμένη έρευνα για απτή απόδειξη της ύπαρξης της δρυοκολάπτης του ... <br><br>Τέλος, μπορώ να αναφέρω τα μέτρα απόδοσης 23 υπολογιστικά μοντέλα μας και την ικανότητά τους να εντοπίζουν ρητορική δομή για το χρήστη που υποβάλλονται γραπτώς. Αυτό το λαχανικό θα σας δώσει ένα σκληρό χτύπημα πηγή των βιταμινών Β και υδατάνθρακες είναι αρκετά για μια γρήγορη μου πάρει ότι μπορεί να διαρκέσει για αρκετές hours.3.. <br><br>Ήταν δύσκολο [http://www.costaspapaellinas.gr/news/burberry.htm Beats Pill] να πάρει άδεια. Αν συναντήσετε ένα μεγάλο ανταγωνισμό στον τομέα σας, να υποβάλει τουλάχιστον πέντε άρθρα στους καταλόγους άρθρου, και τουλάχιστον δέκα στις δημόσιες blogs.. Στη συνέχεια υπογράμμισε τις σκέψεις μου για το 2012 τόσο από μακρο και μικρο-επίπεδο γύρω από την επένδυση ακίνητων περιουσιών. Η ίδια πρόκληση, φυσικά, παρουσιάζεται στο άθεος / φυσικός.. <br><br>Αυτές είναι οι κορυφαίες μου 5 πρέπει να έχουν επιλογές και τα προϊόντα που χρησιμοποιούν επί του παρόντος, ενώ εγώ προπόνηση, είτε είναι στην παραλία ή σε μου Del Mar personal training studio .. Ένα από τα πιο αξιομνημόνευτα γεγονότα του 1991 [http://www.dioptracooking.gr/templates/Config.htm Timberland Shoes] ήταν η Centennial πικ-νικ, που πραγματοποιήθηκε την Κυριακή το απόγευμα στα τέλη Σεπτεμβρίου.. <br><br>Προ συνέδριο ξεκινά περίπου 15 30 λεπτά προτού να ανταποκριθεί ασθενή σας. Μέχρι να εμφανιστεί η τελική έκδοση, τα πράγματα μάλλον θα πρέπει να βελτιωθεί .. Πρώτες EggsThere είναι τα δύο προβλήματα με την παροχή γάτα ωμά αυγά σας. Παίχθηκε video games, Gayle είπε. <br><br>Σε αντίθεση με την τρέχουσα GTI, σύστημα ελέγχου ευστάθειας και πρόσφυσης θα είναι επίσης να ρυθμιστεί ειδικά για την R και μπορεί να ηττηθεί πλήρως με το πάτημα ενός κουμπιού .. Μπορώ να αισθανθώ μόνο κάποια "νοσηρή χαρά" ότι οι αναμεταδότες / φύλακες στα μέσα μαζικής ενημέρωσης και οι πολιτικοί, όλα θα επηρεαστούν [http://www.costaspapaellinas.gr/news/burberry.htm Beats By Dre] (κακή) από ένα νέο πρόεδρο πόλεμο, διάβαζε "πάρει οποιοδήποτε υποψήφιο".. <br><br>2005 2013, Fixya, Ε.Π.Ε. Για παράδειγμα, στοργικός πειράγματα μπορεί να συμβεί μόνο και μόνο επειδή είναι ο τρόπος του που ασχολούνται με τις γυναίκες γενικότερα. Για παράδειγμα, εάν παρέχει υπηρεσίες κηπουρικής στο Λος Άντζελες, στη συνέχεια, η λέξη-κλειδί πρέπει να είναι κάτι σαν υπηρεσίες στο Λος Άντζελες Google Adwords είναι το καλύτερο εργαλείο για να κάνει την έρευνα λέξης επειδή είναι δωρεάν. Η προσέγγισή μας είναι να προσπαθήσουμε και να φτάσει σε εκείνους τους επαγγελματίες ανθρώπινου δυναμικού που θέλετε να αλλάξετε (ή θέλουν το επάγγελμα να αλλάξει) και να αρχίσουν να οικοδομήσουμε μια δυναμική..<ul> |
| | influenced = [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]]<br/>[[Isaac Newton]]<ref name="CohenSmith2002">{{cite book|author1=I. Bernard Cohen|author2=George E. Smith|title=The Cambridge Companion to Newton|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=3wIzvqzfUXkC&pg=PA69|accessdate=15 May 2013|date=25 April 2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-65696-2|page=69}}</ref><ref name="Guicciardini2009">{{cite book|author=Niccolò Guicciardini|title=Isaac Newton on mathematical certainty and method|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=U4I82SJKqAIC&pg=PA344|accessdate=15 May 2013|year=2009|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=978-0-262-01317-8|page=344}}</ref>
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| | prizes =
| | <li>[http://www.the-powercrew.de/wbb/thread.php?threadid=44036&sid= http://www.the-powercrew.de/wbb/thread.php?threadid=44036&sid=]</li> |
| | religion =
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| | footnotes =
| | <li>[http://www.iehdi.org/wiki/index.php?title=User:Xxfjolab#.CE.BA..CE.BB.CF.80._Beats_By_Dre http://www.iehdi.org/wiki/index.php?title=User:Xxfjolab#.CE.BA..CE.BB.CF.80._Beats_By_Dre]</li> |
| }}
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| | | <li>[http://www.xmsxl.com/news/html/?219772.html http://www.xmsxl.com/news/html/?219772.html]</li> |
| '''Christiaan Huygens''', [[F.R.S.|FRS]] ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|aɪ|ɡ|ən|z}} or {{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ɔɪ|ɡ|ən|z}}; {{IPA-nl|ˈɦœy̆ɣə(n)s|lang|ChristianHuygensPronunciation.ogg}}) ({{lang-la|Hugenius}}) (14 April 1629 – 8 July 1695) was a prominent Dutch [[mathematics|mathematician]] and [[natural philosopher]]. He is known particularly as an [[astronomer]], [[physics|physicist]], [[probability|probabilist]] and [[horology|horologist]].
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| | | <li>[http://www.polyhb.com/bbs/showtopic-516041.aspx http://www.polyhb.com/bbs/showtopic-516041.aspx]</li> |
| Huygens was a leading natural philosopher of his time. His work included early telescopic studies of the [[rings of Saturn]] and the discovery of its moon [[Titan (moon)|Titan]], the invention of the [[pendulum clock]] and other investigations in timekeeping. He published major studies of [[mechanics]] and [[optics]], and a pioneer work on [[games of chance]].
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| | | </ul> |
| ==Early life==
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| [[File:Adriaan-henneman constantijn-huygens and his-five-children.png|thumb|Portrait of Huygens' father (center) and his five children (Christiaan at right).]] | |
| [[File:Christiaan Huygens.gif|thumb|upright|Christiaan Huygens. Cut from the [[engraving]] following the painting of [[Caspar Netscher]] by [[G. Edelinck]], between 1684 and 1687.]]
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| Christiaan Huygens was born in 14 April 1629 at [[The Hague]], in a rich and influential Dutch family,<ref>"Christiaan Huygens." Encyclopedia of World Biography. 2004. Encyclopedia.com. (14 December 2012). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3404703173.html</ref><ref name="opendoor">http://www.saburchill.com/HOS/astronomy/016.html</ref> the second son of [[Constantijn Huygens]]. Christiaan was named after his paternal grandfather.<ref name="completedictionary">"Huygens, Christiaan (Also Huyghens, Christian)." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 2008. Encyclopedia.com. (14 December 2012). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-2830902105.html</ref><ref>R. Dugas and P. Costabel, "Chapter Two, The Birth of a new Science" in ''The Beginnings of Modern Science'', edited by Rene Taton, 1958,1964, Basic Books, Inc.</ref> His mother was Suzanna van Baerle. She died in 1637, shortly after the birth of Huygens' sister.<ref>Strategic Affection? Gift Exchange in Seventeenth-Century Holland, by Irma Thoen, pg 127</ref> The couple had five children: [[Constantijn Huygens, Jr.|Constantijn]] (1628), Christiaan (1629), [[Lodewijck Huygens|Lodewijk]] (1631), Philips (1632) and Suzanna (1637).<ref name="father">[http://www.essentialvermeer.com/history/huygens.html Constantijn Huygens, Lord of Zuilichem (1596-1687), by Adelheid Rech]</ref>
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| Constantijn Huygens was a diplomat and advisor to the [[House of Orange]], and also a poet and musician. His friends included [[Galileo Galilei]], [[Marin Mersenne]] and [[René Descartes]].<ref>''The Heirs Of Archimedes: Science and the Art Of War Through the Age of Enlightenment, by Brett D. Steele, pg. 20</ref> Huygens was educated at home until turning sixteen years old. He liked to play with miniatures of [[mill (grinding)|mill]]s and other machines. His father gave him a liberal education: he studied languages and [[music]], [[history]] and [[geography]], [[mathematics]], [[logic]] and [[rhetoric]], but also [[dancing]], [[fencing]] and [[horse riding]].<ref name="completedictionary" /><ref name="father" /><ref>[http://www.entoen.nu/christiaanhuygens/en entoen.nu: Christiaan Huygens 1629-1695 Science in the Golden Age]</ref>
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| In 1644 Huygens had as his mathematical tutor [[Jan Jansz de Jonge Stampioen]], who set the 15-year-old a demanding reading list on contemporary science.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jozef T. Devreese|title='Magic Is No Magic': The Wonderful World of Simon Stevin|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=f59h2ooQGmcC&pg=PA275|accessdate=24 April 2013|date=31 October 2008|publisher=WIT Press|isbn=978-1-84564-391-1|pages=275–6}}</ref> Descartes was impressed by his skills in geometry.<ref name="opendoor"/>
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| ==Student years==
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| His father sent Huygens to study law and mathematics at the [[University of Leiden]], where he studied from May 1645 to March 1647.<ref name="completedictionary"/> [[Frans van Schooten]] was an academic at Leiden from 1646, and also a private tutor to Huygens and his elder brother, replacing Stampioen on the advice of Descartes.<ref>{{cite book|author=H. N. Jahnke|title=A history of analysis|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=CVRZEXFVsZkC&pg=PA47|accessdate=12 May 2013|year=2003|publisher=American Mathematical Soc.|isbn=978-0-8218-9050-9|page=47}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Margret Schuchard|title=Bernhard Varenius: (1622-1650)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=dmArFPaY5ZgC&pg=PA112|accessdate=12 May 2013|year=2007|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-16363-8|page=112}}</ref> Van Schooten brought his mathematical education up to date, in particular introducing him to the work of Fermat on [[differential geometry]].<ref name="Dict470">Dictionary, p. 470.</ref>
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| After two years, from March 1647, Huygens continued his studies at the newly founded College of Orange, in [[Breda]], where his father was a [[curator]]: the change occurred because of a duel between his brother Lodewijk and another student.<ref>[http://www.proevenvanvroeger.nl/eindopdrachten/huygens/huygensfamily.pdf Christiaan Huygens – A family affair, by Bram Stoffele, pg 80.]</ref> Constantijn Huygens was closely involved in the new College, which lasted only to 1669; the rector was [[André Rivet]].<ref>{{cite book|author=C. D. Andriesse|title=Huygens: The Man Behind the Principle|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6FTqA9fwxFMC&pg=PA80|accessdate=23 April 2013|date=25 August 2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-85090-2|pages=80–}}</ref> Christiaan Huygens lived at the home of the jurist [[Johann Henryk Dauber]], and had mathematics classes with the English lecturer [[John Pell]]. He completed his studies in August 1649.<ref name="completedictionary"/> He then had a stint as a diplomat on a mission with [[Henry, Duke of Nassau]]. It took him to [[Bentheim]], then [[Flensburg]]. He took off for [[Denmark]], visited [[Copenhagen]] and [[Helsingør]], and hoped to cross the [[Øresund]] to visit Descartes in [[Stockholm]]. It was not to be.<ref>{{cite book|author=C. D. Andriesse|title=Huygens: The Man Behind the Principle|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6FTqA9fwxFMC&pg=PA85|accessdate=10 May 2013|date=25 August 2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-85090-2|pages=85–6}}</ref>
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| While his father had wished Christiaan to be a diplomat, it also was not to be. In political terms, the [[First Stadtholderless Period]] that began in 1650 meant that the House of Orange was not in power, removing Constantijn Huygens's influence. Further, the father realised that his son had no interest in such a career.<ref name="Dictionary, p. 469">Dictionary, p. 469.</ref>
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| ==Early correspondence==
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| Huygens generally wrote in French or Latin.<ref>{{cite book|author=Lynn Thorndike|title=History of Magic & Experimental Science 1923|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Sr923sVWH_QC&pg=PA622|accessdate=11 May 2013|date=1 March 2003|publisher=Kessinger Publishing|isbn=978-0-7661-4316-6|page=622}}</ref> While still a college student at Leiden he began a correspondence with the [[intelligencer (republic of letters)|intelligencer]] Mersenne, who died quite soon afterwards in 1648.<ref name="completedictionary"/> Mersenne wrote to Constantijn on his son's talent for mathematics, and flatteringly compared him to [[Archimedes]] (3 January 1647). The letters show the early interests of Huygens in mathematics. In October 1646 there is the [[suspension bridge]], and the demonstration that a [[catenary]] is not a [[parabola]].<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Leonhard Euler]]|editor=[[Clifford Truesdell]]|title=The Rational Mechanics of Flexible or Elastic Bodies 1638 - 1788: Introduction to Vol. X and XI|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=gxrzm6y10EwC&pg=PA44|accessdate=10 May 2013|date=1 January 1980|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-7643-1441-5|pages=44–6}}</ref> In 1647/8 they cover the claim of [[Grégoire de Saint-Vincent]] to [[squaring the circle]]; rectification of the ellipse; projectiles, and the [[vibrating string]].<ref>{{cite book|author=C. D. Andriesse|title=Huygens: The Man Behind the Principle|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6FTqA9fwxFMC&pg=PA78|accessdate=10 May 2013|date=25 August 2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-85090-2|pages=78–9}}</ref> Some of Mersenne's concerns at the time, such as the [[cycloid]] (he sent [[Evangelista Torricelli]]'s treatise on the curve), the [[centre of oscillation]], and the [[gravitational constant]], were matters Huygens only took seriously towards the end of the 1650s.<ref>{{cite book|author=Joella G. Yoder|title=Unrolling Time: Christiaan Huygens and the Mathematization of Nature|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=21XlogeKCZ8C&pg=PA12|accessdate=10 May 2013|date=8 July 2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-52481-0|page=12}}</ref> Mersenne had also written on musical theory. Huygens preferred [[meantone temperament]]; he innovated in [[31 equal temperament]], which was not itself a new idea but known to [[Francisco de Salinas]], using logarithms to investigate it further and show its close relation to the meantone system.<ref name="Cohen1984">{{cite book|author=H.F. Cohen|title=Quantifying Music: The Science of Music at the First Stage of Scientific Revolution 1580-1650|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=itKDhDRaik8C&pg=PA217|accessdate=11 May 2013|date=31 May 1984|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-90-277-1637-8|pages=217–9}}</ref>
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| In 1654, Huygens returned to his father's house in The Hague, and was able to devote himself entirely to research.<ref name="completedictionary"/> The family had another house, not far away at [[Hofwijck]], and he spent time there during the summer. His scholarly life did not allow him to escape bouts of depression.<ref>{{cite book|author=H. J. M. Bos|title=Lectures in the History of Mathematics|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=lSGvPI6LHvwC&pg=PA64|accessdate=10 May 2013|year=1993|publisher=American Mathematical Soc.|isbn=978-0-8218-9675-4|pages=64–}}</ref>
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| [[File:Hofwijck garden-plans drawing.png|thumb|The garden plan at Hofwijck, 1653]]
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| Subsequently Huygens developed a broad range of correspondents, though picking up the threads after 1648 was hampered by the five-year ''[[Fronde]]'' in France. Visiting Paris in 1655, Huygens called on [[Ismael Boulliau]] to introduce himself. Then Boulliau took him to see Claude Mylon.<ref>{{cite book|author=C. D. Andriesse|title=Huygens: The Man Behind the Principle|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6FTqA9fwxFMC&pg=PA134|accessdate=10 May 2013|date=25 August 2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-85090-2|page=134}}</ref> The Parisian group of savants that had gathered around Mersenne held together into the 1650s, and Mylon, who had assumed the secretarial role, took some trouble from then on to keep Huygens in touch.<ref>{{cite book|author=Thomas Hobbes|title=The Correspondence: 1660-1679|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=GYF_mBtgIVwC&pg=PA868|accessdate=10 May 2013|year=1997|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-823748-8|page=868}}</ref> Through [[Pierre de Carcavi]] Huygens corresponded in 1656 with [[Pierre de Fermat]], whom he admired greatly, though this side of idolatry. The experience was bittersweet and even puzzling, since it became clear that Fermat had dropped out of the research mainstream, and his priority claims could probably not be made good in some cases. Besides, Huygens was looking by then to apply mathematics, while Fermat's concerns ran to purer topics.<ref>{{cite book|author=Michael S. Mahoney|title=The Mathematical Career of Pierre de Fermat: 1601-1665|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=My19IcewAnoC&pg=PA67|accessdate=10 May 2013|year=1994|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-03666-3|pages=67–8}}</ref>
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| ==Scientific debut==
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| Huygens was often slow to publish his results and discoveries. In the early days his mentor Frans van Schooten was cautious for the sake of his reputation.<ref>{{cite book|author=C. D. Andriesse|title=Huygens: The Man Behind the Principle|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6FTqA9fwxFMC&pg=PA126|accessdate=10 May 2013|date=25 August 2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-85090-2|page=126}}</ref>
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| The first work Huygens put in print was ''Theoremata de quadratura'' (1651) in the field of [[quadrature (mathematics)|quadrature]]. It included material discussed with Mersenne some years before, such as the fallacious nature of the squaring of the circle by Grégoire de Saint-Vincent. His preferred methods were those of [[Archimedes]] and Fermat.<ref name="Dict470"/> Quadrature was a live issue in the 1650s, and through Mylon, Huygens intervened in the discussion of the mathematics of [[Thomas Hobbes]]. Persisting in trying to explain the errors Hobbes had fallen into, he made an international reputation.<ref>{{cite book|author=Schoneveld, Cornelis W|title=Intertraffic of the Mind: Studies in Seventeenth-century Anglo-Dutch Translation with a Checklist of Books Translated from English Into Dutch, 1600-1700|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1s4UAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA41|accessdate=22 April 2013|year=1983|publisher=Brill Archive|isbn=978-90-04-06942-8|page=41}}</ref>
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| [[File:KettingHyugens.jpg|thumb|The [[catenary]] in a manuscript of Huygens.]]
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| Huygens studied [[spherical lens]]es from a theoretical point of view in 1652–3, obtaining results that remained unpublished until [[Isaac Barrow]] (1669). His aim was to understand [[telescope]]s.<ref>Dictionary, p. 472.</ref> He began grinding his own lenses in 1655, collaborating with his brother Constantijn.<ref>{{cite book|author=Robert D. Huerta|title=Vermeer And Plato: Painting The Ideal|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=JGPSyTAFVtsC&pg=PA101|accessdate=24 April 2013|year=2005|publisher=Bucknell University Press|isbn=978-0-8387-5606-5|page=101}}</ref> He designed in 1662 what is now called the [[Huygenian eyepiece]], with two lenses, as a telescope ocular.<ref>{{cite book|author=Randy O. Wayne|title=Light and Video Microscopy|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=14_4OxSxlpYC&pg=PA72|accessdate=24 April 2013|date=28 July 2010|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-08-092128-0|page=72}}</ref><ref name="Dictionary">Dictionary, p. 473.</ref> Lenses were also a common interest through which Huygens could meet socially in the 1660s with [[Baruch Spinoza]], who ground them professionally. They had rather different outlooks on science, Spinoza being the more committed Cartesian, and some of their discussion survives in correspondence.<ref>{{cite book |author=Margaret Gullan-Whur |title=Within Reason: A Life of Spinoza |year=1998 |publisher=Jonathan Cape |isbn=0-224-05046-X |pages=170–1}}</ref> He encountered the work of [[Antoni van Leeuwenhoek]], another lens grinder, in the field of [[microscopy]] which interested his father.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ivor Grattan-Guinness|title=Landmark Writings in Western Mathematics 1640-1940|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=UdGBy8iLpocC&pg=PA35|accessdate=27 April 2013|date=11 February 2005|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-08-045744-4|page=35}}</ref>
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| Huygens wrote the first treatise on [[probability theory]], ''De ratiociniis in ludo aleae'' ("On Reasoning in Games of Chance", 1657).<ref>p963-965, [[Jan Gullberg]], Mathematics from the birth of numbers, W. W. Norton & Company; ISBN 978-0-393-04002-9</ref> He had been told of recent work in the field by Fermat, [[Blaise Pascal]] and [[Girard Desargues]] two years earlier, in Paris.<ref>{{cite book|author=Thomas Hobbes|title=The Correspondence: 1660-1679|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=GYF_mBtgIVwC&pg=PA841|accessdate=11 May 2013|year=1997|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-823748-8|page=841}}</ref> Frans van Schooten translated the original Dutch manuscript "Van Rekeningh in Spelen van Geluck" into Latin and published it in his ''Exercitationum mathematicarum''. It deals with [[games of chance]], in particular the [[problem of points]]. Huygens took as intuitive his appeals to concepts of a "fair game" and equitable contract, and used them set up a theory of [[expected value]]s.<ref>Garber and Ayers, p. 1124–5.</ref> In 1662 [[Sir Robert Moray]] sent Huygens [[John Graunt]]'s [[life table]], and in time Huygens and his brother Lodewijk worked on [[life expectancy]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Anders Hald|title=A History of Probability and Statistics and Their Applications before 1750|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=pOQy6-qnVx8C&pg=PA106|accessdate=11 May 2013|date=25 February 2005|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-471-72517-6|page=106}}</ref>
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| On 3 May 1661, Huygens observed the planet [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] transit over the Sun, using the telescope of instrument maker [[Richard Reeve]] in London, together with astronomer [[Thomas Streete]] and Reeve.<ref>Peter Louwman, Christiaan Huygens and his telescopes, Proceedings of the International Conference, 13 – 17 April 2004, ESTEC, Noordwijk, Netherlands, ESA, sp 1278, Paris 2004</ref> Streete then debated the published record of the transit of [[Hevelius]], a controversy mediated by [[Henry Oldenburg]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Adrian Johns|title=The Nature of the Book: Print and Knowledge in the Making|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ERpBdEUdhz8C&pg=PA437|accessdate=23 April 2013|date=15 May 2009|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-40123-2|pages=437–8}}</ref> Huygens passed to Hevelius a manuscript of [[Jeremiah Horrocks]] on the [[transit of Venus, 1639]], which thereby was printed for the first time in 1662.<ref>{{cite book|title=Venus Seen on the Sun: The First Observation of a Transit of Venus by Jeremiah Horrocks|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=KlA6UCyOboUC&pg=PR19|accessdate=23 April 2013|date=2 March 2012|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-22193-2|page=xix}}</ref> In that year Huygens, who played the [[harpsichord]], took an interest in music, and [[Simon Stevin]]'s theories on it; he showed very little concern to publish his theories on [[consonance]], some of which were lost for centuries.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jozef T. Devreese|title='Magic Is No Magic': The Wonderful World of Simon Stevin|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=f59h2ooQGmcC&pg=PA277|accessdate=11 May 2013|year=2008|publisher=WIT Press|isbn=978-1-84564-391-1|page=277}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Fokko Jan Dijksterhuis|title=Lenses And Waves: Christiaan Huygens And The Mathematical Science Of Optics In The Seventeenth Century|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=KDBXCvx0-0oC&pg=PA98|accessdate=11 May 2013|date=1 October 2005|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4020-2698-0|page=98}}</ref> The [[Royal Society]] of London elected him in 1663.<ref>{{cite book|author=Gerrit A. Lindeboom|title=Boerhaave and Great Britain: Three Lectures on Boerhaave with Particular Reference to His Relations with Great Britain|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=yOIUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PP15|accessdate=11 May 2013|year=1974|publisher=Brill Archive|isbn=978-90-04-03843-1|page=15}}</ref>
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| ==In France==
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| The [[Montmor Academy]] was the form the old Mersenne circle took after the mid-1650s.<ref>{{cite book|author=David J. Sturdy|title=Science and Social Status: The Members of the "Académie Des Sciences", 1666-1750|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xLsNxkRXiNAC&pg=PA17|accessdate=11 May 2013|year=1995|publisher=Boydell & Brewer|isbn=978-0-85115-395-7|page=17}}</ref> Huygens took part in its debates, and supported its "dissident" faction who favoured experimental demonstration to curtail fruitless discussion, and opposed amateurish attitudes.<ref>{{cite book|title=The anatomy of a scientific institution: the Paris Academy of Sciences, 1666-1803|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=_G-MCYFN7R4C&pg=PA7|accessdate=27 April 2013|year=1971|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-01818-1|page=7 note 12}}</ref> During 1663 he made what was his third visit to Paris; the Montmor Academy closed down, and Huygens took the chance to advocate a more [[Baconian method|Baconian]] programme in science. In 1666 he moved to Paris and a position at [[Louis XIV]]'s new [[French Academy of Sciences]].<ref>{{cite book|author=David J. Sturdy|title=Science and Social Status: The Members of the "Académie Des Sciences", 1666-1750|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xLsNxkRXiNAC&pg=PA71|accessdate=27 April 2013|year=1995|publisher=Boydell & Brewer|isbn=978-0-85115-395-7|pages=71–2}}</ref>
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| In Paris Huygens had an important patron and correspondent in [[Jean-Baptiste Colbert]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Jacob Soll|title=The information master: Jean-Baptiste Colbert's secret state intelligence system|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vVjru_uV_hoC&pg=PA99|accessdate=27 April 2013|year=2009|publisher=University of Michigan Press|isbn=978-0-472-11690-4|page=99}}</ref> His relationship with the Academy was not always easy, however, and in 1670 Huygens, seriously ill, chose [[Francis Vernon]] to carry out a donation of his papers to the Royal Society in London, should he die.<ref>A. E. Bell, ''Christian Huygens'' (1950), pp. 65–6; [http://archive.org/stream/christianhuygens029504mbp#page/n79/mode/2up archive.org.]</ref> Then the [[Franco-Dutch War]] took place (1672−8). England's part in it (1672–4) is thought to have damaged his relationship with the Royal Society.<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Jonathan I. Israel]]|title=Enlightenment Contested : Philosophy, Modernity, and the Emancipation of Man 1670-1752: Philosophy, Modernity, and the Emancipation of Man 1670-1752|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=7qAeKpIIxCsC&pg=PA210|accessdate=11 May 2013|date=12 October 2006|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-927922-7|page=210}}</ref> [[Robert Hooke]] for the Royal Society lacked the urbanity to handle the situation, in 1673.<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Lisa Jardine]] |title=The Curious Life of Robert Hooke |year=2003 |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=0-00-714944-1 |pages=180–3}}</ref>
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| [[File:Christiaan Huygens by Jaques Clerion.jpg|thumb|Christiaan Huygens, relief by [[Jean-Jacques Clérion]], around 1670?]]
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| [[Denis Papin]] was assistant to Huygens from 1671.<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Joseph Needham]]|title=Science and Civilisation in China: Military technology : the gunpowder epic|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=BZxSnd2Xyb0C&pg=PA556|accessdate=22 April 2013|year=1974|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-30358-3|page=556}}</ref> One of their projects, which did not bear fruit directly, was the [[gunpowder engine]].<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Joseph Needham]]|title=Military Technology: The Gunpowder Epic|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=hNcZJ35dIyUC&pg=PR31|accessdate=22 April 2013|year=1986|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-30358-3|page=xxxi}}</ref> Papin moved to England in 1678, and continued to work in this area.<ref name="HALL1952">{{cite book|author=[[Alfred Rupert Hall]]|title=Ballistics in the Seventeenth Century: A Study in the Relations of Science and War with Reference Principally to England|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=aBY9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA63|accessdate=22 April 2013|year=1952|publisher=CUP Archive|page=63|id=GGKEY:UT7XX45BRJX}}</ref> Using the [[Paris Observatory]] (completed in 1672), Huygens made further astronomical observations. In 1678 he introduced [[Nicolaas Hartsoeker]] to French scientists such as [[Nicolas Malebranche]] and [[Giovanni Cassini]].
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| It was in Paris, also, that Huygens met the young diplomat [[Gottfried Leibniz]], there in 1672 on a vain mission to meet [[Arnauld de Pomponne]], the French Foreign Minister. At this time Leibniz was working on a [[calculating machine]], and he moved on to London in early 1673 with diplomats from [[Mainz]]; but from March 1673 Leibniz was tutored in mathematics by Huygens.<ref name="Leibniz1996">{{cite book|author=Gottfried Wilhelm Freiherr von Leibniz|title=Leibniz: New Essays on Human Understanding|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vD6nSUSbL7IC&pg=RA1-PR82|accessdate=23 April 2013|date=7 November 1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-57660-4|page=lxxxiii}}</ref> Huygens taught him [[analytical geometry]]; an extensive correspondence ensued, in which Huygens showed reluctance to accept the advantages of [[infinitesimal calculus]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Marcelo Dascal|title=The practice of reason|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4XhKkK9Ms70C&pg=PA45|accessdate=23 April 2013|year=2010|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing|isbn=978-90-272-1887-2|page=45}}</ref>
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| ==Later life==
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| Huygens moved back to [[The Hague]] in 1681 after suffering serious depressive illness. In 1684, he published ''Astroscopia Compendiaria'' on his new tubeless [[aerial telescope]]. He attempted to return to France in 1685 but the [[revocation of the Edict of Nantes]] precluded this move. His father died in 1687, and he inherited Hofwijck, which he made his home the following year.<ref name="Dictionary, p. 469"/>
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| [[File:Hofwijck westkant.JPG|thumb|right|Hofwijck, home to Christiaan Huygens from 1688]]
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| On his third visit to England, in 1689, Huygens met [[Isaac Newton]] on 12 June. They spoke about [[Iceland spar]], and subsequently corresponded about resisted motion.<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Alfred Rupert Hall]] |title=Isaac Newton: Adventurer in thought |year=1886 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-56669-X |page=232}}</ref>
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| Huygens observed the acoustical phenomenon now known as [[flanging]] in 1693.<ref>{{cite book|author=Curtis ROADS|title=The computer music tutorial|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=nZ-TetwzVcIC&pg=PA437|accessdate=11 May 2013|year=1996|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=978-0-262-68082-0|page=437}}</ref> He died in The Hague on 8 July 1695, and was buried in the [[Grote Kerk, The Hague|Grote Kerk]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.grotekerkdenhaag.nl/ |title=GroteKerkDenHaag.nl |language={{nl icon}} |publisher=GroteKerkDenHaag.nl |date= |accessdate=13 June 2010}}</ref>
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| ==Work in natural philosophy==
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| Huygens has been called the leading European natural philosopher between Descartes and Newton.<ref>{{cite book|author=Anders Hald|title=A History of Probability and Statistics and Their Applications before 1750|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=pOQy6-qnVx8C&pg=PA123|accessdate=11 May 2013|date=25 February 2005|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-471-72517-6|page=123}}</ref> He adhered to the tenets of the [[mechanical philosophy]] of his time. In particular he sought explanations of the [[force of gravity]] that avoided [[action at a distance]].<ref>{{cite book|author=William L. Harper|title=Isaac Newton's Scientific Method: Turning Data into Evidence about Gravity and Cosmology|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=oKGlHjDzGjQC&pg=PA206|accessdate=23 April 2013|date=8 December 2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-957040-9|pages=206–7}}</ref>
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| In common with [[Robert Boyle]] and [[Jacques Rohault]], Huygens adhered to what has been called, more explicitly, "experimentally-oriented corpuscular-mechanical" natural philosophy. In the analysis of the [[Scientific Revolution]] this appears as a mainstream position, at least from the founding of the Royal Society to the emergence of Newton, and was sometimes labelled "Baconian", while not being [[inductivist]] or identifying with the views of [[Francis Bacon]] in a simple-minded way.<ref>{{cite book|author1=G N Cantor|author2=G. N. Cantor|author3=J. R. R. Christie|coauthors=M.J.S. Hodge, R.C. Olby|title=Companion to the History of Modern Science|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=NpGE5MDElvwC&pg=PA238|accessdate=12 May 2013|date=1 June 2002|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-14578-7|pages=238–40}}</ref> After his first visit to England in 1661, when he attended a meeting of the [[Gresham College and the formation of the Royal Society|Gresham College group]] in April and learned directly about Boyle's [[air pump]] experiments, Huygens spent time in late 1661 and early 1662 replicating the work. It proved a long process, brought to the surface an experimental issue ("anomalous suspension") and the theoretical issue of ''[[horror vacui (physics)|horror vacui]]'', and ended in July 1663 as Huygens became a Fellow of the Royal Society. It has been said that Huygens finally accepted Boyle's view of the void, as against the Cartesian denial of it;<ref>{{cite book|author=David B. Wilson|title=Seeking nature's logic|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=53w2gMknsMYC&pg=PA19|accessdate=12 May 2013|date=1 January 2009|publisher=Penn State Press|isbn=978-0-271-04616-7|page=19}}</ref> and also (in ''[[Leviathan and the Air Pump]]'') that the [[replication of results]] trailed off messily.<ref>{{cite book |author1=[[Stephen Shapin]]|author2=[[Simon Schaffer]]|title=[[Leviathan and the Air Pump]]|year=1989 |publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0-691-02432-4 |pages=235–56}}</ref>
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| Newton's influence on [[John Locke]] was mediated by Huygens, who assured Locke that Newton's mathematics was sound, leading to Locke's acceptance of a "corpuscular-mechanical" physics.<ref name="Redman1997">{{cite book|author=Deborah Redman|title=The Rise of Political Economy As a Science: Methodology and the Classical Economists|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1faeMedY8k8C&pg=PA62|accessdate=12 May 2013|year=1997|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=978-0-262-26425-9|page=62}}</ref>
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| ===Laws of motion, impact and gravitation===
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| The general approach of the mechanical philosophers was to postulate theories of the kind now called "contact action". Huygens adopted this method, but not without seeing its difficulties and failures.<ref>{{cite book|author=Tian Yu Cao|title=Conceptual Developments of 20th Century Field Theories|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=l4PtgYXpb_oC&pg=PA25|accessdate=11 May 2013|date=14 May 1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-63420-5|pages=25–}}</ref> Leibniz, his student in Paris, abandoned the theory.<ref>Garber and Ayers, p. 595.</ref> Seeing the universe this way made the theory of collisions central to physics. The requirements of the mechanical philosophy, in the view of Huygens, were stringent. Matter in motion made up the universe, and only explanations in those terms could be truly intelligible. While he was influenced by the [[Cartesianism|Cartesian]] approach, he was less doctrinaire.<ref>{{cite book|author=Peter Dear|title=The Intelligibility of Nature: How Science Makes Sense of the World|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=W1GAG3vJHpgC&pg=PA25|accessdate=23 April 2013|date=15 September 2008|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-13950-0|page=25}}</ref> He studied [[elastic collision]]s in the 1650s but delayed publication for over a decade.<ref name="Dict470"/>
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| [[File:Collision huygens.gif|thumb|Illustration from Huygens, ''Oeuvres Complètes'': a boating metaphor underlay the way of thinking about [[relative motion]], and so simplifying the theory of colliding bodies]]
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| Huygens concluded quite early that [[Cartesian laws of motion|Descartes's laws]] for the elastic collision of two bodies must be wrong, and he formulated the correct laws.<ref>''The Beginnings of Modern Science'', edited by Rene Taton, Basic Books, 1958, 1964.</ref> An important step was his recognition of the [[Galilean invariance]] of the problems.<ref>Garber and Ayers, p. 666–7.</ref> His views then took many years to be circulated. He passed them on in person to [[William Brouncker, 2nd Viscount Brouncker|William Brouncker]] and [[Christopher Wren]] in London, in 1661.<ref>Garber and Ayers, p. 689.</ref> What Spinoza wrote to [[Henry Oldenburg]] about them, in 1666 which was during the [[Second Anglo-Dutch War]], was guarded.<ref name="Israel2001">{{cite book|author=[[Jonathan I. Israel]]|title=Radical Enlightenment:Philosophy and the Making of Modernity 1650-1750|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vMvlEweVPTsC&pg=RA3-PR62|accessdate=11 May 2013|date=8 February 2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-162287-8|pages=lxii–lxiii}}</ref> Huygens had actually worked them out in a manuscript ''De motu corporum ex percussione'' in the period 1652–6. The war ended in 1667, and Huygens announced his results to the Royal Society in 1668. He published them in the ''[[Journal des sçavans]]'' in 1669.<ref name="Dict470"/>
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| Huygens stated what is now known as the second of [[Newton's laws of motion]] in a quadratic form.<ref name="mach">[[Ernst Mach]], ''The Science of Mechanics'' (1919), e.g. p.143, p.172 and p.187 <http://archive.org/details/scienceofmechani005860mbp>.</ref> In 1659 he derived the now standard formula for the [[centripetal force]], exerted by an object describing a [[circular motion]], for instance on the string to which it is attached. In modern notation:
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| :<math>F_{c}=\frac{m\ v^2}{r}</math>
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| with ''m'' the [[mass (physics)|mass]] of the object, ''v'' the [[velocity]] and ''r'' the [[radius]]. The publication of the general formula for this force in 1673 was a significant step in studying orbits in astronomy. It enabled the transition from [[Kepler's third law]] of planetary motion, to the [[inverse square law]] of gravitation.<ref>{{cite book|author=J. B. Barbour|title=Absolute Or Relative Motion?: The discovery of dynamics|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ekA9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA542|accessdate=23 April 2013|year=1989|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=978-0-521-32467-0|page=542}}</ref> The interpretation of Newton's work on gravitation by Huygens differed, however, from that of Newtonians such as [[Roger Cotes]]; he did not insist on the ''a priori'' attitude of Descartes, but neither would he accept aspects of gravitational attractions that were not attributable in principle to contact of particles.<ref>{{cite book|author=A.I. Sabra|title=Theories of light: from Descartes to Newton|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=nB84AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA166|accessdate=23 April 2013|year=1981|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=978-0-521-28436-3|pages=166–9}}</ref>
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| The approach used by Huygens also missed some central notions of [[mathematical physics]], which were not lost on others. His work on pendulums came very close to the theory of [[simple harmonic motion]]; but the topic was covered fully for the first time by Newton, in Book II of his ''[[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia Mathematica]]'' (1687).<ref name="Allen1999">{{cite book|author=Richard Allen|title=David Hartley on human nature|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=NCu6HhGlAB8C&pg=PA98|accessdate=12 May 2013|year=1999|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-9451-6|page=98}}</ref> In 1678 Leibniz picked out of Huygens's work on collisions the idea of [[conservation law]] that Huygens had left implicit.<ref>{{cite book|author=Nicholas Jolley|title=The Cambridge Companion to Leibniz|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=SnRis5Gdi8gC&pg=PA279|accessdate=12 May 2013|year=1995|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-36769-1|page=279}}</ref>
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| ===Optics===
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| Huygens is remembered especially for his [[wave theory]] of light, which he first communicated in 1678 to the Paris Académie des sciences. It was published in 1690 in his ''Traité de la lumière'' (Treatise on light).<ref>Christiaan Huygens, [http://books.google.com/books?id=X9PKaZlChggC&pg=PP5 ''Traité de la lumiere''...] (Leiden, Netherlands: Pieter van der Aa, 1690), Chapter 1.</ref> He refers to [[Ignace-Gaston Pardies]], whose manuscript on optics helped him on his wave theory.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=X9PKaZlChggC&pg=PP5 ''Traité de la lumiere''...] (Leiden, Netherlands: Pieter van der Aa, 1690), Chapter 1. From [http://books.google.com/books?id=X9PKaZlChggC&pg=PA18 page 18]</ref>
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| A basic principle of Huygens is that the [[speed of light]] is finite, a point which had been the subject of an experimental demonstration by [[Olaus Roemer]] (1679 at the Paris Observatory), but which Huygens is presumed to have believed already.<ref name="Smith1987">{{cite book|author=A. Mark Smith|title=Descartes's Theory of Light and Refraction: A Discourse on Method|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Ei8LAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA70|accessdate=11 May 2013|year=1987|publisher=American Philosophical Society|isbn=978-0-87169-773-8|page=70 with note 10}}</ref> The theory is [[kinematic]] and its scope largely restricted to [[geometric optics]]. It covers little of what would now be termed [[physical optics]]. It deals with [[wave front]]s and their normal rays, with propagation conceived by means of [[spherical wave]]s emitted along the wave front (see also [[Huygens-Fresnel principle]]).<ref>Shapiro, p. 208.</ref> It was justified as an [[luminiferous aether|ether]] theory, involving transmission via perfectly elastic particles, a revision of the view of Descartes. The nature of light was therefore a [[longitudinal wave]].<ref name="Smith1987"/>
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| Huygens had experimented in 1672 with [[double refraction]] (birefringence) in Icelandic spar ([[calcite]]), a phenomenon discovered in 1669 by [[Rasmus Bartholin]]. At first he could not elucidate what he found.<ref name="Dictionary" /> He later explained it with his wave front theory and concept of [[evolute]]s. He also developed ideas on [[caustic (optics)|caustic]]s.<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Ivor Grattan-Guinness]]|title=Landmark Writings in Western Mathematics 1640-1940|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=UdGBy8iLpocC&pg=PA43|accessdate=23 April 2013|date=11 February 2005|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-08-045744-4|page=43}}</ref> Newton in his ''[[Opticks]]'' of 1704 proposed instead a [[corpuscular theory of light]]. The theory of Huygens was not accepted, by some, because longitudinal waves cannot show birefringence. The interference experiments of [[Thomas Young (scientist)|Thomas Young]] vindicated a wave theory in 1801: the results could not be explained with light particles. The solution to the problem Huygens had faced was then resolved by a [[transverse wave]] theory.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Darryl J. Leiter|author2=Sharon Leiter|title=A to Z of Physicists|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Yz1CFkrZ8QMC&pg=PA108|accessdate=11 May 2013|date=1 January 2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-0922-0|page=108}}</ref> For a view from modern physics see [[wave-particle duality]].
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| Huygens investigated the use of lenses in projectors. He is credited as the inventor of the [[magic lantern]], described in correspondence of 1659.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jordan D. Marché|title=Theaters Of Time And Space: American Planetariums, 1930-1970|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=olT1ipj-EboC&pg=PA11|accessdate=23 April 2013|year=2005|publisher=Rutgers University Press|isbn=978-0-8135-3576-0|page=11}}</ref> There are others to whom such a lantern device has been attributed, such as [[Giambattista della Porta]], and [[Cornelis Drebbel]]: the point at issue is the use of a lens for better projection. [[Athanasius Kircher]] has also been credited for that.<ref>{{cite book|author=C. D. Andriesse|title=Huygens: The Man Behind the Principle|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6FTqA9fwxFMC&pg=PA128|accessdate=23 April 2013|date=25 August 2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-85090-2|page=128}}</ref>
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| ===Horology===
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| Huygens designed more accurate [[clock]]s than were available at the time. His invention of the [[pendulum clock]] was a breakthrough in timekeeping, and he made a prototype by the end of 1656. In 1657 he contracted the construction of his designs to [[Salomon Coster]] in The Hague, with a local patent (''octroy''). He was less successful elsewhere: [[Pierre Séguier]] refused him any French rights, Simon Douw of [[Rotterdam]] copied the design in 1658, and [[Ahasuerus Fromanteel]] also, in London.<ref>{{cite book|author=Epstein/Prak|title=Guilds, Innovation and the European Economy, 1400-1800|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=fXlALljcyMkC&pg=PA269|accessdate=10 May 2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-47107-7|pages=269–70|year=2010}}</ref> The oldest known Huygens-style pendulum clock is dated 1657 and can be seen at the [[Museum Boerhaave]] in [[Leiden]].<ref>Hans van den Ende: "Huygens's Legacy, The Golden Age of the Pendulum Clock", Fromanteel Ldt., 2004,</ref><ref>van Kersen, Frits & van den Ende, Hans: Oppwindende Klokken – De Gouden Eeuw van het Slingeruurwerk 12 September – 29 November 2004 [Exhibition Catalog Paleis Het Loo]; Apeldoorn: Paleis Het Loo,2004,</ref><ref>Hooijmaijers, Hans; Telling time – Devices for time measurement in museum Boerhaave – A Descriptive Catalogue; Leiden: Museum Boerhaave, 2005</ref><ref>No Author given; Chistiaan Huygens 1629-1695, Chapter 1: Slingeruurwerken; Leiden: Museum Boerhaave, 1988</ref>
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| The new clock was potentially suitable for [[navigation]]al uses ([[longitude by chronometer]]). Exploiting the invention at sea proved troublesome, however. In 1660 Lodewijk Huygens made a trial on a voyage to Spain, and reported that heavy weather made the clock useless. [[Alexander Bruce, 2nd Earl of Kincardine|Alexander Bruce]] elbowed into the field in 1662, and Huygens called in Sir Robert Moray and the Royal Society to mediate and preserve some of his rights.<ref>{{cite book|author=Joella G. Yoder|title=Unrolling Time: Christiaan Huygens and the Mathematization of Nature|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=21XlogeKCZ8C&pg=PA152|accessdate=12 May 2013|date=8 July 2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-52481-0|page=152}}</ref> Trials continued into the 1660s, the best news coming from a Royal Navy captain [[Robert Holmes (Royal Navy officer)|Robert Holmes]] operating against the Dutch possessions in 1664.<ref>{{cite book|author=Michael R. Matthews|title=Time for Science Education: How Teaching the History and Philosophy of Pendulum Motion Can Contribute to Science Literacy|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vCtYnEuW7TIC&pg=PA137|accessdate=12 May 2013|year=2000|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-306-45880-4|pages=137–8}}</ref> Lisa Jardine <ref>{{cite book|author=Lisa Jardine|title=Going Dutch: How the English Plundered Holland's Glory|date=1 April 2008|publisher=HarperPress|isbn=978-0007197323|chapter=Chapter 10}}</ref> doubts that Holmes reported the results of the trial accurately, and Samuel Pepys expressed his doubts at the time: ''The said master'' [i.e. the captain of Holmes' ship] ''affirmed, that the vulgar reckoning proved as near as that of the watches, which'' [the clocks], ''added he, had varied from one another unequally, sometimes backward, sometimes forward, to 4, 6, 7, 3, 5 minutes; as also that they had been corrected by the usual account.'' One for the French Academy on an expedition to [[Cayenne]] ended badly. [[Jean Richer]] suggested correction for the [[figure of the Earth]]. By the time of the [[Dutch East India Company]] expedition of 1686 to the [[Cape of Good Hope]], Huygens was able to supply the correction retrospectively.<ref>Dictionary, p. 471.</ref>
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| ====Pendulums====
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| [[File:Christiaan Huygens Clock and Horologii Oscillatorii.jpg|thumb|left|Spring driven pendulum clock, designed by Huygens, built by instrument maker Salomon Coster (1657),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.museumboerhaave.nl/AAcollection/english/M03V20_V09853.html |title=Boerhaave Museum Top Collection: Hague clock (Pendulum clock) (Room 3/Showcase V20) |publisher=Museumboerhaave.nl |date= |accessdate=13 June 2010}}</ref> and copy of the ''Horologium Oscillatorium'',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.museumboerhaave.nl/AAcollection/english/M03V20_g13604.html |title=Boerhaave Museum Top Collection: Horologium oscillatorium, siue, de motu pendulorum ad horologia aptato demonstrationes geometricae (Room 3/Showcase V20) |publisher=Museumboerhaave.nl |date= |accessdate=13 June 2010}}</ref> [[Museum Boerhaave]], [[Leiden]]]]
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| In 1673 Huygens published ''[[Horologium Oscillatorium|Horologium Oscillatorium sive de motu pendulorum]]'', his major work on [[pendulum]]s and horology. It had been observed by Mersenne and others that pendulums are not quite [[isochronous]]: their period depends on their width of swing, with wide swings taking longer than narrow swings.<ref>Marin Mersenne 1647 ''Reflectiones Physico-Mathematicae'', Paris, Chapter 19, cited in {{cite conference
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| | first = Michael S.
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| | last = Mahoney
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| | authorlink =
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| | title = Christian Huygens: The Measurement of Time and of Longitude at Sea
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| | booktitle = Studies on Christiaan Huygens
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| | pages = 234–270
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| | publisher = Swets
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| | year = 1980
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| | url = http://www.princeton.edu/~mike/articles/huygens/timelong/timelong.html#_N_13
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| | archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20071204152637/http://www.princeton.edu/~mike/articles/huygens/timelong/timelong.html#_N_13
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| | archivedate = 4 December 2007
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| | accessdate = 7 October 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
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| | last = Matthews
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| | first = Michael R.
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| | authorlink =
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| | coauthors =
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| | title = Time for science education: how teaching the history and philosophy of pendulum motion can contribute to science literacy
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| | publisher = Springer
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| | year = 2000
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| | location = New York
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| | pages = 124–126
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| | url = http://books.google.com/?id=vCtYnEuW7TIC&pg=PA126&dq=mersenne+isochronism+pendulum#v=onepage&q=mersenne%20isochronism%20pendulum&f=false
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| | isbn = 0-306-45880-2}}</ref>
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| Huygens found the curve down which a mass will slide under the influence of gravity in the same amount of time, regardless of its starting point; he solved the so-called [[tautochrone curve|tautochrone problem]]. By geometrical methods he showed it to be a cycloid, rather than the circular arc of a pendulum's bob, and therefore that pendulums are not isochronous. He also solved a problem posed by Mersenne: how to calculate the period of a pendulum made of an arbitrarily shaped swinging rigid body. This involved discovering the [[center of oscillation]] and its reciprocal relationship with the pivot point. In the same work, he analysed the [[conical pendulum]], consisting of a weight on a cord moving in a circle, using the concept of centrifugal force.
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| [[File:H6 clock.jpg|thumb|Detail of illustration from ''Horologium Oscillatorium'' (1658), by Huygens]]
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| Huygens was the first to derive the formula for the [[Frequency|period]] of an ideal mathematical pendulum (with massless rod or cord and length much longer than its swing), in modern notation:
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| :<math>T = 2 \pi \sqrt{\frac{l}{g}}</math>
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| with ''T'' the period, ''l'' the length of the pendulum and ''g'' the [[gravitational acceleration]]. By his study of the oscillation period of compound pendulums Huygens made pivotal contributions to the development of the concept of [[moment of inertia]].<ref name="mach" />
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| Huygens also observed [[coupled oscillation]]s: two of his pendulum clocks mounted next to each other on the same support often became synchronized, swinging in opposite directions. He reported the results by letter to the Royal Society, and it is referred to as "[[odd sympathy|an odd kind of sympathy]]" in the Society's minutes.<ref>[[Thomas Birch]], "The History of the Royal Society of London, for Improving of Natural Knowledge, in which the most considerable of those papers...as a supplement to the Philosophical Transactions," vol 2, (1756) p 19.</ref><ref>A copy of the letter appears in C. Huygens, in Oeuvres Completes de Christian Huygens, edited by M. Nijhoff (Societe Hollandaise des Sciences, The Hague, The Netherlands, 1893), Vol. 5, p. 246 (in French).</ref> This concept is now known as [[Entrainment (physics)|entrainment]].
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| ====The balance spring watch====
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| Huygens developed a [[balance spring]] watch in the same period as, though independently of, [[Robert Hooke]]. Controversy over the priority persisted for centuries. A Huygens watch employed a spiral balance spring; but he used this form of spring initially only because the balance in his first watch rotated more than one and a half turns. He later used spiral springs in more conventional watches, made for him by [[Thuret]] in Paris from around 1675.
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| [[File:Huygens Systema Saturnium.jpg|thumb|left|Huygens' explanation for the aspects of Saturn, Systema Saturnium, 1659.]]
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| Such springs were essential in modern watches with a detached [[lever escapement]] because they can be adjusted for [[isochronism]]. Watches in the time of Huygens and Hooke, however, employed the very un-detached [[verge escapement]]. It interfered with the isochronal properties of any form of balance spring, spiral or otherwise.
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| In February 2006, a long-lost copy of Hooke's handwritten notes from several decades of [[Royal Society]] meetings was discovered in a cupboard in [[Hampshire]], England. The balance-spring priority controversy appears, by the evidence contained in those notes, to be settled in favour of Hooke's claim.<ref>Nature – International Weekly Journal of Science, number 439, pages 638-639, 9 February 2006</ref><ref>Notes and Records of the Royal Society (2006) 60, pages 235-239, 'Report – The Return of the Hooke Folio' by Robyn Adams and Lisa Jardine</ref>
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| In 1675, Huygens patented a [[pocket watch]]. The watches which were made in Paris from c.1675 and following the Huygens plan are notable for lacking a [[fusee (horology)|fusee]] for equalizing the mainspring torque. The implication is that Huygens thought that his spiral spring would isochronise the balance, in the same way that he thought that the cycloidally shaped suspension curbs on his clocks would isochronise the pendulum.
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| ===Astronomy===
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| [[File:Aerialtelescope.jpg|thumb|upright|Huygens' telescope without tube. Picture from his 1684 ''Astroscopia Compendiaria tubi optici molimine liberata'' (compound telescopes without a tube)]]
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| ====Saturn's rings and Titan====
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| In 1655, Huygens proposed that [[Saturn]] was surrounded by a solid ring, "a thin, flat ring, nowhere touching, and inclined to the ecliptic." Using a 50 power [[refracting telescope]] that he designed himself, Huygens also discovered the first of Saturn's moons, [[Titan (moon)|Titan]].<ref>Ron Baalke, [http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/saturn/back.html Historical Background of Saturn's Rings]</ref> In the same year he observed and sketched the [[Orion Nebula]]. His drawing, the first such known of the Orion nebula, was published in ''Systema Saturnium'' in 1659. Using his modern telescope he succeeded in subdividing the nebula into different stars. The brighter interior now bears the name of the ''Huygenian region'' in his honour.<ref>{{cite book|author=Antony Cooke|title=Visual Astronomy Under Dark Skies: A New Approach to Observing Deep Space|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=T64M5qlZTxoC&pg=PA67|accessdate=24 April 2013|date=1 January 2005|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-84628-149-5|page=67}}</ref> He also discovered several [[nebula|interstellar nebulae]] and some [[double star]]s.
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| ====''Cosmotheoros''====
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| Shortly before his death in 1695, Huygens completed ''Cosmotheoros'', published posthumously in 1698. In it he speculated on the existence of [[extraterrestrial life]], on other planets, which he imagined was similar to that on Earth.
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| Such speculations were not uncommon at the time, justified by [[Copernicanism]] or the [[plenitude principle]]. But Huygens went into greater detail.<ref>{{cite book|author=Philip C. Almond|title=Adam and Eve in Seventeenth-Century Thought|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Rx1el1IsopEC&pg=PA61|accessdate=24 April 2013|date=27 November 2008|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-09084-1|pages=61–2}}</ref> The work, translated into English in its year of publication, has been seen as in the fanciful tradition of [[Francis Godwin]], [[John Wilkins]] and [[Cyrano de Bergerac]], and fundamentally [[Utopian]]; and also to owe in its concept of [[planet]] to [[cosmography]] in the sense of [[Peter Heylin]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Dominic Baker-Smith|author2=Cedric Charles Barfoot|title=Between dream and nature: essays on utopia and dystopia : Conference : Papers|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=-bTyK6Yri4UC&pg=PA86|accessdate=24 April 2013|year=1987|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=978-90-6203-959-3|pages=86–8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Juliet Cummins|author2=David Burchell|title=Science, Literature, and Rhetoric in Early Modern England|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=LdL8iy4-OwQC&pg=PA194|accessdate=24 April 2013|year=2007|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-0-7546-5781-1|pages=194–5}}</ref>
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| Huygens wrote that availability of water in liquid form was essential for life and that the properties of water must vary from planet to planet to suit the temperature range. He took his observations of dark and bright spots on the surfaces of Mars and Jupiter to be evidence of water and ice on those planets.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.brighthub.com/science/space/articles/50441.aspx |title=Johar Huzefa (2009) Nothing But The Facts – Christiaan Huygens |publisher=Brighthub.com |date=28 September 2009 |accessdate=13 June 2010}}</ref> He argued that extraterrestrial life is neither confirmed nor denied by the Bible, and questioned why God would create the other planets if they were not to serve a greater purpose than that of being admired from Earth. Huygens postulated that the great distance between the planets signified that God had not intended for beings on one to know about the beings on the others, and had not foreseen how much humans would advance in scientific knowledge.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jacob|first=Margaret|title=The Scientific Revolution|year=2010|publisher=Bedford/ St. Martin's|location=Boston|pages=29, 107–114}}</ref>
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| It was also in this book that Huygens published his method for estimating [[stellar distance]]s. He made a series of smaller holes in a screen facing the sun, until he estimated the light was of the same intensity as that of the star [[Sirius]]. He then calculated that the angle of this hole was <math>1/27,664</math><sup>th</sup> the diameter of the Sun, and thus it was about 30,000 times as far away, on the (incorrect) assumption that Sirius is as bright our sun. The subject of [[photometry (astronomy)|photometry]] remained in its infancy until [[Pierre Bouguer]] and [[Johann Heinrich Lambert]].<ref name="Mccormmach2012">{{cite book|author=Russell Mccormmach|title=Weighing the World: The Reverend John Michell of Thornhill|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=9eMkgfKIdXIC&pg=PA129|accessdate=12 May 2013|year=2012|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-94-007-2022-0|pages=129–31}}</ref>
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| ==Works==
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| [[Image:Christiaan-huygens2.jpg|thumb|upright|Possible depiction of Huygens left of center, detail from ''{{lang|fr|L'établissement de l'Académie des Sciences et fondation de l'observatoire}}, 1666'' by [[Henri Testelin]]. [[Jean-Baptiste Colbert|Colbert]] presents the members of the newly founded [[Académie des Sciences]] to king [[Louis XIV of France]], around 1675.]]
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| * 1649 – ''De iis quae liquido supernatant'' (About the parts above the water, unpublished)
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| * 1651 – ''Cyclometriae''
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| * 1651 – ''Theoremata de quadratura hyperboles, ellipsis et circuli'' (theorems concerning the [[Quadrature (mathematics)|quadrature]] of the [[hyperbola]], [[ellipse]] and [[circle]], Huygens' first publication)
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| * 1654 – ''De circuli magnitudine inventa''
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| * 1656 – ''De Saturni Luna observatio nova'' (About the new observation of the [[Titan (moon)|moon]] of [[Saturn]] – discovery of Titan)
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| * 1656 – ''De motu corporum ex percussione'', published only in 1703
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| * 1657 – ''De ratiociniis in ludo aleae'' = ''Van [[probability|reeckening]] in spelen van geluck'' (translated by [[Frans van Schooten]])
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| * 1659 – ''Systema saturnium'' (on the planet Saturn)
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| * 1659 – ''De vi centrifuga'' (''Concerning the [[centrifugal force]]''), published in 1703
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| * 1673 – ''Horologium oscillatorium sive de motu pendularium'' (theory and design of the pendulum clock, dedicated to [[Louis XIV of France]])
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| * 1684 – ''Astroscopia Compendiaria tubi optici molimine liberata'' (compound telescopes without a tube)
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| * 1685 – ''Memoriën aengaende het slijpen van glasen tot [[telescope|verrekijckers]]'' (How to grind telescope lenses)
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| * 1686 – ''Old {{lang-nl|Kort onderwijs aengaende het gebruijck der horologiën tot het vinden der lenghten van Oost en West}}'' (How to use clocks to establish the [[longitude]])
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| * 1690 – ''Traité de la lumière''
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| * 1690 – ''Discours de la cause de la pesanteur'' (Discourse about gravity, from 1669?)
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| * 1691 – ''Lettre touchant le cycle harmonique'' (Rotterdam, concerning the [[31 equal temperament|31-tone system]])
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| * 1698 – ''Cosmotheoros'' (solar system, cosmology, life in the universe)
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| * 1703 – ''Opuscula posthuma'' including
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| ** ''De motu corporum ex percussione'' (Concerning the motions of colliding bodies – contains the first correct laws for collision, dating from 1656).
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| ** ''Descriptio automati planetarii'' (description and design of a [[planetarium]])
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| * 1724 – ''Novus cyclus harmonicus'' (Leiden, after Huygens' death)
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| * 1728 – ''Christiani Hugenii Zuilichemii, dum viveret Zelhemii toparchae, opuscula posthuma ...'' (pub. 1728) Alternate title: ''Opera reliqua'', concerning optics and physics
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| * 1888-1950 – ''Huygens, Christiaan. [https://archive.org/details/oeuvrescomplte01huyg Oeuvres complètes]. The Hague'' Complete work, editors [[D. Bierens de Haan]] (tome=deel 1-5), [[Johannes Bosscha Jr.|J. Bosscha]] (6-10), [[Diederik Johannes Korteweg|D.J. Korteweg]] (11-15), [[Albertus Antonie Nijland|A.A. Nijland]] (15), [[J.A. Vollgraf]] (16-22).
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| :''Tome I: Correspondance 1638-1656 (1888). Tome II: Correspondance 1657-1659 (1889). Tome III: Correspondance 1660-1661 (1890). Tome IV: Correspondance 1662-1663 (1891). Tome V: Correspondance 1664-1665 (1893). Tome VI: Correspondance 1666-1669 (1895). Tome VII: Correspondance 1670-1675 (1897). Tome VIII: Correspondance 1676-1684 (1899). Tome IX: Correspondance 1685-1690 (1901). Tome X: Correspondance 1691-1695 (1905).''
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| :''Tome XI: Travaux mathématiques 1645-1651 (1908). Tome XII: Travaux mathématiques pures 1652-1656 (1910). ''
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| :''Tome XIII, Fasc. I: Dioptrique 1653, 1666 (1916). Tome XIII, Fasc. II: Dioptrique 1685-1692 (1916). ''
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| :''Tome XIV: Calcul des probabilités. Travaux de mathématiques pures 1655-1666 (1920). ''
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| :''Tome XV: Observations astronomiques. Système de Saturne. Travaux astronomiques 1658-1666 (1925). ''
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| :''Tome XVI: Mécanique jusqu’à 1666. Percussion. Question de l’existence et de la perceptibilité du mouvement absolu. Force centrifuge (1929). Tome XVII: L’horloge à pendule de 1651 à 1666. Travaux divers de physique, de mécanique et de technique de 1650 à 1666. Traité des couronnes et des parhélies (1662 ou 1663) (1932). Tome XVIII: L'horloge à pendule ou à balancier de 1666 à 1695. Anecdota (1934). Tome XIX: Mécanique théorique et physique de 1666 à 1695. Huygens à l’Académie royale des sciences (1937). ''
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| :''Tome XX: Musique et mathématique. Musique. Mathématiques de 1666 à 1695 (1940). ''
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| :''Tome XXI: Cosmologie (1944). ''
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| :''Tome XXII: Supplément à la correspondance. Varia. Biographie de Chr. Huygens. Catalogue de la vente des livres de Chr. Huygens (1950).''
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| ==Portraits==
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| ===During his lifetime===
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| * 1639 – His father [[Constantijn Huygens]] in the midst of his five children by [[Adriaen Hanneman]], painting with medaillons, [[Mauritshuis]], [[The Hague]]
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| * 1671 – Portrait by [[Caspar Netscher]], [[Museum Boerhaave]], [[Leiden]], loan from [[Haags Historisch Museum]]
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| * ~1675 – Possible depiction of Huygens on l'''{{lang-fr|Établissement de l'Académie des Sciences et fondation de l'observatoire}}, 1666'' by [[Henri Testelin]]. [[Jean-Baptiste Colbert|Colbert]] presents the members of the newly founded [[Académie des Sciences]] to king [[Louis XIV of France]]. [[Chateau de Versailles|Musée National du Château et des Trianons de Versailles]], [[Versailles (commune)|Versailles]]
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| * 1679 – [[Locket|Medaillon]] portrait in [[relief]] by the French [[sculptor]] [[Jean-Jacques Clérion]]
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| * 1686 – Portrait in pastel by [[Bernard Vaillant]], [[Hofwijck|Museum Hofwijck]], [[Voorburg]]
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| * between 1684 and 1687 – Engraving by [[G. Edelinck]] after the painting by [[Caspar Netscher]]
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| * 1688 – Portrait by [[Pierre Bourguignon]], [[Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen]], [[Amsterdam]]
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| ==Named after Huygens==
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| ===Science===
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| * The [[Huygens probe]]: The lander for the Saturnian [[moon]] Titan, part of the [[Cassini–Huygens]] mission to Saturn
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| * [[2801 Huygens|Asteroid 2801 Huygens]]
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| * A [[Huygens (crater)|crater on Mars]]
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| * [[Mons Huygens]], a mountain on the [[Moon]]
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| * [[Huygens Software]], a [[microscope image processing]] package.
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| * A two element [[Huygens eyepiece|eyepiece]] designed by him. An early step in the development of the [[achromatic lens]], since it corrects some [[chromatic aberration]].
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| * The [[Huygens–Fresnel principle]], a simple model to understand disturbances in wave propagation.
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| * Huygens [[wavelets]], the fundamental mathematical basis for [[Scalar (mathematics)|scalar]] [[diffraction]] theory
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| * [http://www.ch.tudelft.nl W.I.S.V. Christiaan Huygens]: Dutch study guild for the studies Mathematics and Computer Science at the [[Delft University of Technology]]
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| * [http://www.physics.leidenuniv.nl/ Huygens Laboratory]: Home of the Physics department at Leiden University, Netherlands
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| * [http://huygens.supercomputer.nl/ Huygens Supercomputer]: National Supercomputer facility of the Netherlands, located at [[Stichting Academisch Rekencentrum Amsterdam|SARA]] in Amsterdam
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| * The Huygens-building in Noordwijk, Netherlands, first building on the Space Business park opposite Estec (ESA)
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| * The Huygens-building at the [[Radboud University]], Nijmegen, The Netherlands. One of the major buildings of the science department at the university of Nijmegen.
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| ===Other===
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| * [http://www.huygenscollege.nl/ Christiaan Huygens College], High School located in [[Eindhoven]], Netherlands.
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| * The ''Christiaan Huygens'', a ship of the [[Netherland Line|Nederland Line]].
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| * Huygens Scholarship Programme for [http://www.nuffic.nl/international-students/scholarships/worldwide/hsp-huygens-programme/ international students] and [http://www.nuffic.nl/nederlandse-studenten/studiebeurs/beurzen/hsp-talentenprogramma/ Dutch students]
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| ==See also==
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| * [[History of the internal combustion engine]]
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| * [[List of largest optical telescopes historically]]
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| ==References==
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| *{{cite book|first=A. E. |last=Bell|title=Christian Huygens and the Development of Science in the Seventeenth Century|year=1947|publisher=Edward Arnold & Co, London|url=https://archive.org/details/christianhuygens029504mbp|ref=harv}}
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| *{{cite book|author=Daniel Garber|title=The Cambridge History of Seventeenth-century Philosophy (2 vols.)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=BPlkkgIhUXIC&pg=PA666|accessdate=11 May 2013|year=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-53720-9}}
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| *Alan E. Shapiro, ''Kinematic Optics: A Study of the Wave Theory of Light in the Seventeenth Century'', Archive for History of Exact Sciences Vol. 11, No. 2/3 (31.XII.1973), pp. 134-266. Published by: Springer. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41133375
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| *{{ThoemmesDutch|Huygens, Christiaan|468–77}}
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| ==Notes==
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| {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}
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| ==Further reading==
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| * [[Cornelis Dirk Andriesse|Andriesse, C.D.]], 2005, ''Huygens: The Man Behind the Principle''. Foreword by Sally Miedema. [[Cambridge University Press]].
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| * [[Carl Benjamin Boyer|Boyer, C.B.]]: ''A history of mathematics'', New York, 1968
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| * [[Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis|Dijksterhuis, E. J.]]: ''The Mechanization of the World Picture: Pythagoras to Newton''
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| * Hooijmaijers, H.: ''Telling time – Devices for time measurement in Museum Boerhaave – A Descriptive Catalogue'', Leiden, Museum Boerhaave, 2005
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| * [[Dirk Jan Struik|Struik, D.J.]]: ''A history of mathematics''
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| * Van den Ende, H. et al.: ''Huygens's Legacy, The golden age of the pendulum clock'', Fromanteel Ltd, Castle Town, Isle of Man, 2004
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| * Yoder, J G., 2005, "Book on the pendulum clock" in [[Ivor Grattan-Guinness]], ed., ''Landmark Writings in Western Mathematics''. Elsevier: 33-45.
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| * [http://www.mala.bc.ca/~mcneil/cit/citlchuygens1.htm Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695) : Library of Congress Citations]. Retrieved 2005-03-30.
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| ==External links==
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| {{Commons category}}
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| {{wikiquote}}
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| ===Primary sources, translations===
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| * {{Gutenberg author| id=Christiaan+Huygens | name=Christiaan Huygens}}
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| ** [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/14725 Treatise on Light] translated into English by Silvanus P. Thompson, Project Gutenberg etext.
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| * [http://math.dartmouth.edu/~doyle/docs/huygens/huygens.pdf De Ratiociniis in Ludo Aleae or The Value of all Chances in Games of Fortune, 1657] Christiaan Huygens' book on probability theory. An English translation published in 1714. Text pdf file.
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| * ''[http://digital.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=kmoddl;cc=kmoddl;view=toc;subview=short;idno=kmod053 Horologium oscillatorium]'' (German translation, pub. 1913) or ''[http://www.17centurymaths.com/contents/huygenscontents.html Horologium oscillatorium]'' (English translation by Ian Bruce) on the pendulum clock
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| * ''[http://www.staff.science.uu.nl/~gent0113/huygens/huygens_ct_en.htm ΚΟΣΜΟΘΕΩΡΟΣ]'' (''Cosmotheoros''). (English translation of Latin, pub. 1698; subtitled ''The celestial worlds discover'd: or, Conjectures concerning the inhabitants, plants and productions of the worlds in the planets.'')
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| * ''[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/14725 Traité de la lumière]'' or ''[http://www.archive.org/details/treatiseonlight031310mbp Treatise on light]'' (English translation, pub. 1912 and again in 1962)
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| * [http://www.sil.si.edu/DigitalCollections/HST/Huygens/huygens.htm Systema Saturnium 1659 text] a digital edition of Smithsonian Libraries
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| * ''[http://www.princeton.edu/~hos/mike/texts/huygens/centriforce/huyforce.htm On Centrifugal Force]'' (1703)
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| * [http://worldcat.org/identities/find?fullName=christiaan+huygens Huygens' work at WorldCat]
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| *[http://www.brighthub.com/science/space/articles/50441.aspx Christiaan Huygens biography and achievements]
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| * [http://www.leidenuniv.nl/fsw/verduin/stathist/huygens/acad1666/huygpor/ Portraits of Christiaan Huygens]
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| ===Museums===
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| * [http://www.hofwijck.nl/hofwijck/en/ Huygensmuseum Hofwijck] in Voorburg, Netherlands, where Huygens lived and worked.
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| * [http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/onlinestuff/stories/huygens_clocks.aspx?keywords=huygens Huygens Clocks] exhibition from the Science Museum, London
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| * [http://bc.ub.leidenuniv.nl/bc/tentoonstelling/Huygens/index.html LeidenUniv.nl], Exhibition on Huygens in [[University Library Leiden]] {{nl icon}}
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| ===Other===
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| * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Huygens}}
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| * [http://www.xs4all.nl/~huygensf/english/huygens.html Huygens and music theory] [[Huygens–Fokker Foundation]] —on Huygens' [[31 equal temperament]] and how it has been used
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| *[http://www-personal.umich.edu/~jbourj/money1.htm Christiaan Huygens on the 25 Dutch Guilder banknote of the 1950s.]
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| * {{MathGenealogy |id=125561}}
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| * [http://frank.harvard.edu/~paulh/misc/huygens.htm How to pronounce "Huygens"]
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| * {{librivox author|Christiaan+Huygens}}
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| {{Authority control|VIAF=9894043}}
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| {{Microtonal music}}
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| <!--Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]] -->
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| {{Persondata
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| |NAME= Huygens, Christiaan
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| |ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
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| |SHORT DESCRIPTION= [[Physicist]] and [[mathematician]]
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| |DATE OF BIRTH= 14 April 1629
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| |PLACE OF BIRTH= The Hague, Netherlands
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| |DATE OF DEATH= 8 July 1690
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| |PLACE OF DEATH= The Hague, Netherlands
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| }}
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| {{DEFAULTSORT:Huygens, Christiaan}}
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| [[Category:1629 births]]
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| [[Category:1695 deaths]]
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| [[Category:17th-century astronomers]]
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| [[Category:17th-century Latin-language writers]]
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| [[Category:17th-century mathematicians]]
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| [[Category:Discoverers of moons]]
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| [[Category:Dutch astronomers]]
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| [[Category:Dutch inventors]]
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| [[Category:Dutch Christians]]
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| [[Category:Dutch mathematicians]]
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| [[Category:Dutch members of the Dutch Reformed Church]]
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| [[Category:Dutch music theorists]]
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| [[Category:Dutch physicists]]
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| [[Category:Original Fellows of the Royal Society]]
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| [[Category:Leiden University alumni]]
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| [[Category:Members of the French Academy of Sciences]]
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| [[Category:People from The Hague]]
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| [[Category:People of the Dutch Golden Age]]
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| [[Category:Scientific instrument makers]]
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| [[Category:Optical physicists]]
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| [[Category:Theoretical physicists]]
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| {{Link FA|nl}}
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