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| '''Fourier transform spectroscopy''' is a measurement technique whereby spectra are collected based on measurements of the [[coherence (physics)|coherence]] of a [[radiate|radiative]] source, using [[time-domain]] or space-domain measurements of the [[electromagnetic radiation]] or other type of radiation.
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| It can be applied to a variety of types of spectroscopy including [[optical spectroscopy]], [[infrared spectroscopy]] ([[Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy|FTIR]], FT-NIRS), [[Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy|nuclear magnetic resonance]] (NMR) and magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging (MRSI),<ref>Antoine Abragam. 1968. ''Principles of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance.'', Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK.</ref> [[mass spectrometry]] and [[electron spin resonance]] spectroscopy. There are several methods for measuring the temporal [[coherence (physics)|coherence]] of the light (see: [[Optical_autocorrelation#Field_autocorrelation|field-autocorrelation]]), including the continuous wave ''Michelson'' or ''Fourier transform'' spectrometer and the pulsed Fourier transform spectrograph (which is more sensitive and has a much shorter sampling time than conventional spectroscopic techniques, but is only applicable in a laboratory environment).
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| The term ''Fourier transform spectroscopy'' reflects the fact that in all these techniques, a [[Fourier transform]] is required to turn the raw data into the actual [[frequency spectrum|spectrum]], and in many of the cases in optics involving interferometers, is based on the [[Wiener–Khinchin theorem]].
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| ==Conceptual introduction==
| | Creating a blend of espresso coffee is not easy. It requires an in-depth competence about the coffees, a lot of experience, and never-ending enthusiasm to always challenge yourself and do something better. Plus, that innate magic touch that always distinguishes the champion from the crowd of [http://Pinterest.com/search/pins/?q=average average] players, no matter if we are in golf, tennis, or coffee.<br><br>My father in law also taught me to roast the green coffee, and gave me tips to know exactly when to stop roasting so it wouldn't burn. Using a large, blackened skillet, usually outside over an open fire, the dry beans are moved constantly in the hot pan while they toast. As they would begin to darken, and as soon as one bean could easily be crushed between two fingers, the pan must come off the heat. The beans hold enough residual heat that they will continue to roast. Wait too long and the beans are burnt, and ruined. It is a delicate balance.<br><br>A [http://organiccleanses.net/pure-green-bean-plus/ Pure Green Coffee Bean Plus review] simple but effective weight loss tip is eating less and exercising more. Exercise will boost your metabolism while eating less will induce fat burning in the body.<br><br>The other option is an air roaster called a fluid bed roaster. It uses hot, forced air either heated by a flame, or electricity (heating element). The force of the blowing hot air inside the roasting chamber keeps the beans suspended in air for even roasting. Think of the old air poppers for popcorn. I think that fluid bed roasters are better for higher [http://Search.Un.org/search?ie=utf8&site=un_org&output=xml_no_dtd&client=UN_Website_en&num=10&lr=lang_en&proxystylesheet=UN_Website_en&oe=utf8&q=capacity+roasting&Submit=Go capacity roasting] of 250lbs or more at a time. The air is much hotter and the roast time is a bit shorter.<br><br>Later in the week, First Lady Michelle Obama will visit the show on Wednesday to discuss, among things, President Obama's campaign trail diet, and two new issues to her Let's Move! initiative. She'll also unveil improvements to the federal guidelines for school lunches taking effect this school year.<br><br>It has been reported that participants lost an average of 17 pounds over a period of 22 weeks and reduced their overall body weight by 10.5% and most importantly 16% of their overall body fat!<br><br>I was recently diagnosed with symptomatic acidity sensitivity which caused my stomach to bloat and hurt. In the long run the condition worsened and I had no other choice than to stop taking all medication.<br><br>Cardiovascular exercise is a great way for you to maximize your weight loss. Running, speed walking, biking and various other activities that increase your heart rate are considered cardiovascular exercises. Fat burning is induced by a rising and high heart rate. Try to get in at least 30 minutes of cardiovascular exercise a minimum of 3 to 4 days a week. |
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| ===Measuring an emission spectrum===
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| [[File:Spectrum of blue flame.svg|thumb|An example of a [[spectrum]]: The spectrum of light emitted by the blue flame of a [[butane torch]]. The horizontal axis is the [[wavelength]] of light, and the vertical axis represents how much light is emitted by the torch at that wavelength.]]
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| One of the most basic tasks in [[spectroscopy]] is to characterize the [[spectrum]] of a light source: How much light is emitted at each different wavelength. The most straightforward way to measure a spectrum is to pass the light through a [[monochromator]], an instrument that blocks all of the light ''except'' the light at a certain wavelength (the un-blocked wavelength is set by a knob on the monochromator). Then the intensity of this remaining (single-wavelength) light is measured. The measured intensity directly indicates how much light is emitted at that wavelength. By varying the monochromator's wavelength setting, the full spectrum can be measured. This simple scheme in fact describes how ''some'' spectrometers work.
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| Fourier transform spectroscopy is a less intuitive way to get the same information. Rather than allowing only one wavelength at a time to pass through to the detector, this technique lets through a beam containing many different wavelengths of light at once, and measures the ''total'' beam intensity. Next, the beam is modified to contain a ''different'' combination of wavelengths, giving a second data point. This process is repeated many times. Afterwards, a computer takes all this data and works backwards to infer how much light there is at each wavelength.
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| To be more specific, between the light source and the detector, there is a certain configuration of mirrors that allows some wavelengths to pass through but blocks others (due to [[wave interference]]). The beam is modified for each new data point by moving one of the mirrors; this changes the set of wavelengths that can pass through.
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| As mentioned, computer processing is required to turn the raw data (light intensity for each mirror position) into the desired result (light intensity for each wavelength). The processing required turns out to be a common algorithm called the [[Fourier transform]] (hence the name, "Fourier transform spectroscopy"). The raw data is sometimes called an "interferogram". Because of the existing computer equipment requirements, and the ability of light to analyze very small amounts of substance, it is often beneficial to automate many aspects of the sample preparation. The sample can be better preserved and the results are much easier to replicate. Both of these benefits are important, for instance, in testing situations that may later involve legal action, such as those involving drug specimens.<ref>Semiautomated depositor for infrared microspectrometry
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| http://www.opticsinfobase.org/viewmedia.cfm?uri=as-57-9-1078&seq=0</ref> | |
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| ===Measuring an absorption spectrum===
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| [[File:FTIR-interferogram.svg|thumb|An "interferogram" from a Fourier transform spectrometer. This is the "raw data" which can be [[Fourier transform]]ed into an actual spectrum. The peak at the center is the ZPD position ("Zero Path Difference"): Here, all the light passes through the [[Michelson interferometer|interferometer]] because its two arms have equal length.]]
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| The method of Fourier transform spectroscopy can also be used for [[absorption spectroscopy]]. The primary example is "[[Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy|FTIR Spectroscopy]]", a common technique in chemistry.
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| In general, the goal of absorption spectroscopy is to measure how well a sample absorbs or transmits light at each different wavelength. Although absorption spectroscopy and emission spectroscopy are different in principle, they are closely related in practice; any technique for emission spectroscopy can also be used for absorption spectroscopy. First, the emission spectrum of a [[broadband]] lamp is measured (this is called the "background spectrum"). Second, the emission spectrum of the same lamp ''shining through the sample'' is measured (this is called the "sample spectrum"). The sample will absorb some of the light, causing the spectra to be different. The ratio of the "sample spectrum" to the "background spectrum" is directly related to the sample's absorption spectrum.
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| Accordingly, the technique of "Fourier transform spectroscopy" can be used both for measuring emission spectra (for example, the emission spectrum of a star), ''and'' absorption spectra (for example, the absorption spectrum of a liquid).
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| ==Continuous wave ''Michelson'' or ''Fourier transform'' spectrograph==
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| [[File:Fourier transform spectrometer.png|thumb|250px|The Fourier transform spectrometer is just a Michelson interferometer but one of the two fully reflecting mirrors is movable, allowing a variable delay (in the travel-time of the light) to be included in one of the beams.]]
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| The Michelson spectrograph is similar to the instrument used in the [[Michelson–Morley experiment]]. Light from the source is split into two beams by a half-silvered mirror, one is reflected off a fixed mirror and one off a movable mirror which introduces a time delay—the Fourier transform spectrometer is just a [[Michelson interferometer]] with a movable mirror. The beams interfere, allowing the temporal [[coherence (physics)|coherence]] of the light to be measured at each different time delay setting, effectively converting the time domain into a spatial coordinate. By making measurements of the signal at many discrete positions of the movable mirror, the spectrum can be reconstructed using a Fourier transform of the temporal [[coherence (physics)|coherence]] of the light. Michelson spectrographs are capable of very high spectral resolution observations of very bright sources.
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| The Michelson or Fourier transform spectrograph was popular for infra-red applications at a time when infra-red astronomy only had single pixel detectors. Imaging Michelson spectrometers are a possibility, but in general have been supplanted by imaging [[Fabry–Pérot]] instruments which are easier to construct. | |
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| ===Extracting the spectrum===
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| The intensity as a function of the path length difference (also denoted as retardation) in the interferometer <math>p</math> and [[wavenumber]] <math>\tilde{\nu} = 1/\lambda</math> is <ref>Peter Atkins, Julio De Paula. 2006. ''Physical Chemistry'', 8th ed. Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK.</ref>
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| :<math>I(p,\tilde{\nu}) = I(\tilde{\nu})[1 + \cos(2\pi\tilde{\nu}p)]</math>,
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| where <math>I(\tilde{\nu})</math> is the spectrum to be determined. Note that it is not necessary for <math>I(\tilde{\nu})</math> to be modulated by the sample before the interferometer. In fact, most [[Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy|FTIR spectrometers]] place the sample after the interferometer in the optical path. The total intensity at the detector is
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| :<math>I(p) =(p, \int_0^\infty I(p,\tilde{\nu}) d\tilde{\nu}) =(p, \int_0^\infty I(\tilde{\nu})[1 + \cos (2\pi\tilde{\nu}p)] d\tilde{\nu}). </math> for all desired p
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| This is just a [[Sine and cosine transforms|Fourier cosine transform]]. The inverse gives us our desired result in terms of the measured quantity <math>I(p)</math>:
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| :<math>I(\tilde{\nu}) = 4 \int_0^\infty [I(p) - \tfrac{1}{2}I(p=0)] \cos (2\pi\tilde{\nu}p) dp. </math>
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| ==Pulsed ''Fourier transform'' spectrometer==
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| A pulsed ''Fourier transform'' spectrometer does not employ transmittance techniques. In the most general description of pulsed FT spectrometry, a sample is exposed to an energizing event which causes a periodic response. The frequency of the periodic response, as governed by the field conditions in the spectrometer, is indicative of the measured properties of the analyte.
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| ===Examples of pulsed Fourier transform spectrometry===
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| In magnetic spectroscopy ([[Electron paramagnetic resonance|EPR]], [[Nuclear magnetic resonance|NMR]]), an RF pulse in a strong ambient magnetic field is used as the energizing event. This turns the magnetic particles at an angle to the ambient field, resulting in gyration. The gyrating spins then induce a periodic current in a detector coil. Each spin exhibits a characteristic frequency of gyration (relative to the field strength) which reveals information about the analyte.
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| In [[Fourier transform mass spectrometry]], the energizing event is the injection of the charged sample into the strong electromagnetic field of a cyclotron. These particles travel in circles, inducing a current in a fixed coil on one point in their circle. Each traveling particle exhibits a characteristic cyclotron frequency-field ratio revealing the masses in the sample.
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| ===Free induction decay=== | |
| Pulsed FT spectrometry gives the advantage of requiring a single, time-dependent measurement which can easily deconvolute a set of similar but distinct signals. The resulting composite signal, is called a ''free induction decay,'' because typically the signal will decay due to inhomogeneities in sample frequency, or simply unrecoverable loss of signal due to entropic loss of the property being measured.
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| ==Stationary forms of Fourier transform spectrometers==
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| In addition to the scanning forms of Fourier transform spectrometers, there are a number of stationary or self-scanned forms.<ref>William H. Smith {{US patent|4976542}} Digital Array Scanned Interferometer, issued Dec. 11, 1990</ref> While the analysis of the interferometric output is similar to that of the typical scanning interferometer, significant differences apply, as shown in the published analyses. Some stationary forms retain the Fellgett multiplex advantage, and their use in the spectral region where detector noise limits apply is similar to the scanning forms of the FTS. In the photon-noise limited region, the application of stationary interferometers is dictated by specific consideration for the spectral region and the application.
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| ==Fellgett advantage==
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| {{Main|Fellgett's advantage}}
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| One of the most important advantages of Fourier transform spectroscopy was shown by P.B. Fellgett, an early advocate of the method. The Fellgett advantage, also known as the multiplex principle, states that when obtaining a spectrum when measurement noise is dominated by detector noise (which is independent of the power of radiation incident on the detector), a multiplex spectrometer such as a Fourier transform spectrometer will produce a relative improvement in signal-to-noise ratio, compared to an equivalent scanning [[monochromator]], of the order of the square root of m, where m is the number of sample points comprising the spectrum. However if the detector is [[shot noise]] dominated, the noise will be proportional to the square root of the power, thus for a broad boxcar spectrum (continuous broadband source), the noise is proportional to the square root of m, thus precisely offset the Fellgett's advantage. Shot noise is the main reason Fourier transform spectrometry was never popular for ultraviolet (UV) and visible spectra.
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| ==See also==
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| {{colbegin|2}}
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| *[[Applied spectroscopy]]
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| *[[Forensic chemistry]]
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| *[[Forensic polymer engineering]]
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| *[[Nuclear magnetic resonance]]
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| *[[Time stretch dispersive Fourier transform]]
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| *[[Infrared spectroscopy]]
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| *[[Infrared spectroscopy of metal carbonyls]]
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| {{colend}}
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| ==References==
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| {{reflist|2}}
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| ==External links==
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| *[http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/FourierTransformSpectrometer.html Description of how a Fourier transform spectrometer works]
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| *[http://www.astro.livjm.ac.uk/courses/phys362/notes/ The Michelson or Fourier transform spectrograph]
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| *[http://www.ijvs.com/volume5/edition5/section1.html#Feature Internet Journal of Vibrational Spectroscopy – How FTIR works]
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| *[http://www.osa.org/meetings/topicalmeetings/fts/default.aspx Fourier Transform Spectroscopy Topical Meeting and Tabletop Exhibit]
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| {{DEFAULTSORT:Fourier Transform Spectroscopy}}
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| [[Category:Spectroscopy]]
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| [[Category:Spectrometers]]
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| [[Category:Fourier analysis]]
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| [[Category:Scientific techniques]]
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| [[cs:FTIR]]
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| [[de:FTIR-Spektrometer]]
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| [[ko:푸리에 변환 적외선 분광학]]
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| [[it:Spettroscopia in trasformata di Fourier]]
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| [[he:ספקטרוסקופיית פורייה]]
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| [[pl:Spektroskopia fourierowska]]
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| [[sv:FTIR]]
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| [[zh:傅里叶转换光谱学]]
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| [[ru:Фурье-спектроскопия]]
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Creating a blend of espresso coffee is not easy. It requires an in-depth competence about the coffees, a lot of experience, and never-ending enthusiasm to always challenge yourself and do something better. Plus, that innate magic touch that always distinguishes the champion from the crowd of average players, no matter if we are in golf, tennis, or coffee.
My father in law also taught me to roast the green coffee, and gave me tips to know exactly when to stop roasting so it wouldn't burn. Using a large, blackened skillet, usually outside over an open fire, the dry beans are moved constantly in the hot pan while they toast. As they would begin to darken, and as soon as one bean could easily be crushed between two fingers, the pan must come off the heat. The beans hold enough residual heat that they will continue to roast. Wait too long and the beans are burnt, and ruined. It is a delicate balance.
A Pure Green Coffee Bean Plus review simple but effective weight loss tip is eating less and exercising more. Exercise will boost your metabolism while eating less will induce fat burning in the body.
The other option is an air roaster called a fluid bed roaster. It uses hot, forced air either heated by a flame, or electricity (heating element). The force of the blowing hot air inside the roasting chamber keeps the beans suspended in air for even roasting. Think of the old air poppers for popcorn. I think that fluid bed roasters are better for higher capacity roasting of 250lbs or more at a time. The air is much hotter and the roast time is a bit shorter.
Later in the week, First Lady Michelle Obama will visit the show on Wednesday to discuss, among things, President Obama's campaign trail diet, and two new issues to her Let's Move! initiative. She'll also unveil improvements to the federal guidelines for school lunches taking effect this school year.
It has been reported that participants lost an average of 17 pounds over a period of 22 weeks and reduced their overall body weight by 10.5% and most importantly 16% of their overall body fat!
I was recently diagnosed with symptomatic acidity sensitivity which caused my stomach to bloat and hurt. In the long run the condition worsened and I had no other choice than to stop taking all medication.
Cardiovascular exercise is a great way for you to maximize your weight loss. Running, speed walking, biking and various other activities that increase your heart rate are considered cardiovascular exercises. Fat burning is induced by a rising and high heart rate. Try to get in at least 30 minutes of cardiovascular exercise a minimum of 3 to 4 days a week.