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| [[File:Islm.svg|thumb|270px|The IS curve moves to the right, causing higher interest rates (i) and expansion in the "real" economy (real GDP, or Y).]]
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Relying on the pace, grip degree of the tire , power of braking and abrasiveness of the surface, the skid mark would possibly range from hardly noticeable, to a uniform black strap. |
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| The '''IS–LM model''' ([[investment|'''I'''nvestment]] [[saving|'''S'''aving]]–[[liquidity preference|'''L'''iquidity Preference]] [[money supply|'''M'''oney Supply]]) is a [[macroeconomic]] tool that demonstrates the relationship between interest rates and real output, in the goods and services market and the money market. The intersection of the IS and LM curves is the "general equilibrium" where there is simultaneous equilibrium in both markets.<ref>{{cite book |authorlink=Robert J. Gordon |first=Robert J. |last=Gordon |title=Macroeconomics |edition=Eleventh |year=2009 |location=Boston |publisher=Pearson Addison Wesley |isbn=9780321552075 }}</ref>
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| ==History ==
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| The IS/LM model was born at the econometric conference held in Oxford during September, 1936. [[Roy Harrod]], [[John Hicks|John R. Hicks]], and [[James Meade]] all presented papers
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| describing [[mathematical model]]s attempting to summarize [[John Maynard Keynes]]' ''[[General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money]]''. Hicks, who had seen a draft of Harrod's paper, invented the IS/LM model (originally using the [[abbreviation]] "LL", not "LM"). He later presented it in
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| "Mr. Keynes and the Classics: A Suggested Interpretation".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.policonomics.com/wp-content/uploads/Mr.Keynes-and-the-Classics.pdf |title=Hicks, J. R. (1937), "Mr. Keynes and the Classics – A Suggested Interpretation", ''Econometrica'', v. 5 (April): 147–159 |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2013-03-29}}</ref>
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| Hicks later agreed that the model missed important points of Keynesian theory, criticizing it as having very limited use beyond "a classroom gadget", and criticizing equilibrium methods generally: "When one turns to questions of policy, looking towards the future instead of the past, the use of equilibrium methods is still more suspect."<ref name=h1980>Hicks, John (1980–1981), "IS-LM: An Explanation", ''Journal of Post Keynesian Economics'', v. 3: 139–155</ref>
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| The first problem was that it presents the real and monetary sectors as separate, something Keynes attempted to transcend. In addition, an equilibrium model ignores uncertainty – and that [[liquidity preference]] only makes sense in the presence of uncertainty "For there is no sense in liquidity, unless expectations are uncertain."<ref name=h1980/> A shift in one of the IS or LM curves will cause a change in expectations, which shifts the other curve. Most modern macroeconomists see the IS/LM model as being, at best, a starting approximation for understanding the real world.
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| Although disputed in some circles and generally accepted as being imperfect, the model is widely employed and seen as useful in gaining an understanding of macroeconomic theory. It is included in most university undergraduate macroeconomics textbooks.<ref>{{cite web
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| |title=The Macroeconomist as Scientist and Engineer
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| |last=Mankiw |first=N. Gregory
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| |date=May 2006
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| |url=http://www.economics.harvard.edu/files/faculty/40_Macroeconomist_as_Scientist.pdf
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| |page=19
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| |accessdate=2011-12-30}}</ref>
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| ==Formation==
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| The model is presented as a graph of two intersecting lines in the first quadrant.
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| The horizontal axis represents [[national income]] or [[real vs. nominal in economics|real]] [[gross domestic product]] and is labelled ''Y.'' The vertical axis represents the [[real interest rate]], ''i.'' Since this is a non-dynamic model, there is a fixed relationship between the [[nominal interest rate]] and the real interest rate (the former equals the latter plus the expected inflation rate which is [[exogeny|exogenous]] in the short run); therefore variables such as [[money demand]] which actually depend on the nominal interest rate can equivalently be expressed as depending on the real interest rate.
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| The point where these schedules intersect represents a short-run [[General equilibrium|equilibrium]] in the real and monetary sectors (though not necessarily in other sectors, such as labor markets): both the product market and the money market are in equilibrium. This equilibrium yields a unique combination of the interest rate and [[real GDP]].
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| ===IS curve===
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| For the investment—saving curve, the independent variable is the interest rate and the dependent variable is the level of income. (Note that economics graphs like this one typically place the independent variable (interest rate, in this example) on the vertical axis rather than the horizontal axis.)<ref>Krugman, Paul [http://krugman.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/02/08/supply-and-demand-and-qwerty/ Supply and Demand and QWERTY]. February 8, 2011.</ref> The IS curve is drawn as downward-[[slope|sloping]] with the interest rate (i) on the vertical axis and GDP (gross domestic product: Y) on the horizontal axis. The initials IS stand for "Investment and Saving equilibrium" but since 1937 have been used to represent the [[Locus (mathematics)|locus]] of all equilibria where total spending (consumer spending + planned private investment + government purchases + net exports) equals an economy's total output (equivalent to real income, Y, or GDP). To keep the link with the historical meaning, the IS curve can be said to represent the equilibria where total private investment equals total saving, where the latter equals consumer saving ''plus'' government saving (the budget surplus) ''plus'' foreign saving (the trade surplus). In equilibrium, all spending is desired or planned; there is no unplanned inventory accumulation.<ref>{{Citation | first = Gonçalo L. | last = Fonseca | url = http://homepage.newschool.edu/het/essays/classic/glut.htm | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20030726214851/http://homepage.newschool.edu/het/essays/classic/glut.htm | archivedate = 2003-07-26 | title = The General Glut Controversy | publisher = [[The New School]] }}</ref> The level of real GDP (Y) is determined along this line for each [[interest rate]].
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| Thus the IS curve is a [[locus of points]] of equilibrium in the "real" (non-financial) economy. Each point on the curve represents the equilibrium between the Savings and Investment (S=I).
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| Given expectations about returns on fixed investment, every level of the real interest rate (i) will generate a certain level of planned fixed [[investment]] and other interest-sensitive spending: lower interest rates encourage higher fixed investment and the like. Income is at the equilibrium level for a given interest rate when the saving that [[consumer]]s and other economic participants choose to do out of this income equals investment (or, equivalently, when "leakages" from the [[circular flow]] equal "injections"). The [[multiplier effect]] of an increase in fixed investment resulting from a lower interest rate raises real GDP. This explains the downward slope of the IS curve. In summary, this line represents the causation from falling interest rates to rising planned fixed investment (etc.) to rising national income and output.
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| The IS curve is defined by the equation | |
| :<math>Y = C \left({Y}-{T(Y)}\right) + I \left({r}\right) + G + NX(Y),</math>
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| where Y represents income, <math>C(Y-T(Y))</math> represents consumer spending as an increasing function of disposable income (income, Y, minus taxes, T(Y), which themselves depend positively on income), <math>I(r)</math> represents investment as a decreasing function of the real interest rate, G represents government spending, and NX(Y) represents net exports (exports minus imports) as a decreasing function of income (decreasing because imports are an increasing function of income). In this equation, the level of G (government spending) is presumed to be [[exogenous]], meaning that it is taken as a given.
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| ===LM curve===
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| For the liquidity preference and money supply curve, the independent variable is "income" and the dependent variable is "the interest rate." The LM curve shows the combinations of interest rates and levels of real income for which the money market is in equilibrium. It is an upward-sloping curve representing the role of finance and money.
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| The LM function is the set of equilibrium points between the [[liquidity preference]] (or demand for money) function and the [[money supply]] function (as determined by [[bank]]s and [[central bank]]s).
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| Each point on the LM curve reflects a particular equilibrium situation in the money market equilibrium diagram, based on a particular level of income. In the money market equilibrium diagram, the [[liquidity preference]] function is simply the willingness to hold cash balances instead of [[securities]]. For this function, the nominal interest rate (on the vertical axis) is plotted against the quantity of cash balances (or liquidity), on the horizontal. The liquidity preference function is downward sloping. Two basic elements determine the quantity of cash balances demanded (liquidity preference) and therefore the position and slope of the function:
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| * 1) [[Transactions demand]] for money: this includes both (a) the willingness to hold cash for everyday transactions and (b) a precautionary measure (money demand in case of emergencies). Transactions demand is positively related to real GDP (represented by Y,and also referred to as income). This is simply explained – as GDP increases, so does spending and therefore transactions. As GDP is considered exogenous to the liquidity preference function, changes in GDP shift the curve. For example, an increase in GDP will increase transactions which will increase the demand for money for given interest rates, and cause the Liquidity preference curve to shift to the right.
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| * 2) [[Speculative demand]] for money: this is the willingness to hold cash instead of securities as an asset for investment purposes. Speculative demand is inversely related to the interest rate. As the interest rate rises, the [[opportunity cost]] of holding cash increases – the incentive will be to move into securities.
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| The money supply function for this situation is plotted on the same graph as the liquidity preference function. The money supply is determined by the central bank decisions and willingness of commercial banks to loan money. Though the money supply is related indirectly to interest rates in the very short run, the money supply in effect is perfectly inelastic with respect to nominal interest rates (assuming the central bank chooses to control the money supply rather than focusing directly on the interest rate). Thus the money supply function is represented as a vertical line – money supply is a constant, independent of the interest rate, GDP, and other factors. Mathematically, the LM curve is defined by the equation <math>M/P=L(i,Y)</math>, where the supply of money is represented as the [[Real versus nominal value (economics)|real]] amount M/P (as opposed to the nominal amount M), with P representing the [[price level]], and L being the real demand for money, which is some function of the interest rate i and the level Y of real income. The LM curve shows the combinations of interest rates and levels of real income for which money supply equals money demand—that is, for which the money market is in equilibrium.
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| For a given level of income, the intersection point between the liquidity preference and money supply functions implies a single point on the LM curve: specifically, the point giving the level of the interest rate which equilibrates the money market at the given level of income. Recalling that for the LM curve, the interest rate is plotted against real GDP (whereas the liquidity preference and money supply functions plot interest rates against the quantity of cash balances), an increase in GDP shifts the liquidity preference function rightward and hence increases the interest rate. Thus the LM function is positively sloped.
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| ==Shifts==
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| One hypothesis is that a government's [[deficit spending]] ("[[fiscal policy]]") has an effect similar to that of a lower saving rate or increased private fixed investment, increasing the amount of demand for goods at each individual interest rate. An increased deficit by the national government shifts the IS curve to the right. This raises the equilibrium interest rate (from i<sub>1</sub> to i<sub>2</sub>) and national income (from Y<sub>1</sub> to Y<sub>2</sub>), as shown in the graph above. The equilibrium level of national income in the IS-LM diagram is referred to as [[aggregate demand]].
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| By the above hypothesis, the graph indicates one of the major criticisms of [[deficit spending]] as a way to stimulate the economy: rising interest rates lead to [[crowding out (economics)|crowding out]] – i.e., discouragement – of private fixed investment, which in turn may hurt long-term growth of the supply side ([[potential output]]).
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| Keynesians respond that deficit spending may actually "crowd in" (encourage) private fixed investment via the [[accelerator effect]], which helps long-term growth. Further, if government deficits are spent on productive public investment (e.g., infrastructure or public health) that spending directly and eventually raises potential output, although not necessarily more (or less) than the lost private investment might have. The extent of any crowding out depends on the shape of the LM curve. A shift in the IS curve along a relatively flat LM curve can increase output substantially with little change in the interest rate. On the other hand, an upward shift in the IS curve along a vertical LM curve will lead to higher interest rates, but no change in output (this case represents the [[treasury view]]).
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| Rightward shifts of the IS curve also result from [[exogeny|exogenous]] increases in investment spending (i.e., for reasons other than interest rates or income), in consumer spending, and in export spending by people outside the economy being modelled, as well as by exogenous decreases in spending on imports. Thus these too raise both equilibrium income and the equilibrium interest rate. Of course, changes in these variables in the opposite direction shift the IS curve in the opposite direction.
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| The IS–LM model also allows for the role of [[monetary policy]]. If the money supply is increased, that shifts the LM curve downward and to the right, lowering interest rates and raising equilibrium national income. Further, exogenous decreases in liquidity preference, perhaps due to improved transactions technologies, lead to downward shifts of the LM curve and thus increases in income and decreases in interest rates. Changes in these variables in the opposite direction shift the LM curve in the opposite direction.
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| ==Incorporation into larger models==
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| By itself, the IS–LM model is used to study the short run when [[price level|prices]] are fixed or sticky and no [[inflation]] is taken into consideration. But in practice the main role of the model is as a sub-model of larger models (especially the Aggregate Demand-Aggregate Supply model – the [[AD–AS model]]) which allow for a flexible [[price level]]. In the aggregate demand-aggregate supply model, each point on the aggregate demand curve is an outcome of the IS–LM model for aggregate demand Y based on a particular price level. Starting from one point on the aggregate demand curve, at a particular price level and a quantity of aggregate demand implied by the IS–LM model for that price level, if one considers a higher potential price level, in the IS–LM model the real money supply M/P will be lower and hence the LM curve will be shifted higher, leading to lower aggregate demand; hence at the higher price level the level of aggregate demand is lower, so the aggregate demand curve is negatively sloped.
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| ==See also==
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| * [[AD-IA model]]
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| * [[IS/MP model]]
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| * [[Mundell–Fleming model]]
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| * [[National savings]]
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| * [[Policy mix]]
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| ==References==
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| {{reflist}}
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| ==External links==
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| {{commons category|IS-LM model diagrams}}
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| * Fonseca, Gonçalo L., et al. [http://www.newschool.edu/nssr/het/essays/keynes/hickshansen.htm The Hicks–Hansen IS–LM model] A fairly in-depth explanation of the model.
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| * Krugman, Paul. [http://web.mit.edu/krugman/www/islm.html There's something about macro] – An explanation of the model and its role in understanding macroeconomics.
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| * Krugman, Paul. [http://krugman.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/10/09/is-lmentary/ IS-LMentary] – A basic explanation of the model and its uses.
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| * Weerapana, Akila. [http://www.wellesley.edu/Economics/weerapana/econ213/econ213pdf/lect213-08.pdf The IS curve and the LM curve (pdf)] – Lecture Notes explaining the IS Curve and the LM Curve.
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| * Wiens, Elmer G. [http://www.egwald.ca/macroeconomics/basicislm.php IS–LM model] – An online, interactive IS–LM model of the Canadian economy.
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| {{economics}}
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| {{DEFAULTSORT:Is Lm Model}}
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| [[Category:Economics curves]]
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| [[Category:Economics models]]
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| [[Category:General equilibrium and disequilibrium]]
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| [[Category:Macroeconomics]]
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Discovering a productive use of used tractor tires somewhat than relegating them to a junk yard or dump fits in well with the pattern for recycling and the necessity for utilizing objects so long as they are serviceable. By giving new worth to issues which were freely discarded, we're sending the message that it is good to get the maximum worth out of every item that we use, that nothing is past being useful, and that worth can come from what would previously be discarded. Within the state of affairs of outfitting vintage farm gear with used tires made for those machines, value is being added to an item already thought to have intrinsic worth by its proprietor.
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Speaking of treads, the front tires can are available in fairly a number of tread designs. You wish to watch out which one you select, for the fallacious tread can make a world of difference in the working capabilities of your tractor. The heavier the load, the wider the tread and the footprint of the tire needs to be. This helps the tractor transfer smoothly by means of the fields over muddy or frozen terrain, making your workload a lot simpler. How Do Tire Pressure Indicators Work? 235/seventy five/sixteen Vs. 245/70/16 Tire Dimension Issues With a Tire Size Different From the Manufacturing facility Size How the Quantity of Air in a Tire Affects Pace Car Tire Markings Defined What Size Tire Does a 1990 Toyota Camry Use? Tire Types for Improving Gas Mileage Why Do You Not Need a Spare Tire With Run Flat Tires? Michelin 22.5 Tire Specs
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