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| The '''open-circuit time constant method''' is an approximate analysis technique used in electronic circuit design to determine the corner frequency of [[complex circuit]]s. It also is known as the '''zero-value time constant technique'''. The method provides a quick evaluation, and identifies the largest contributions to time constants as a guide to circuit improvements.
| | Standard mindfulness workouts where disturbances are release put you in a situation of awareness, and the mind power has the capacity to function better. They help you feel more clearly and concentrate better. Should people wish to get more on [http://www.iamsport.org/pg/bookmarks/patentpendingqfd/read/26834251/reflect-to-unlock-your-hidden-potential-part-1 mindfulness london], we recommend many resources you might consider investigating. They"re also simple exercises to complete. <br><br>More Head Power in Minutes <br><br>A simple mindfulness exercise starts with seated, calming and breathing deeply through your nose. Close your eyes and be aware of your breath going in and out. For a second interpretation, please peep at: [http://www.indyarocks.com/blog/1742993/Yoga-For-Individuals-On-The-Run mbsr london]. Following a second, move your attention to the body, one part at a time, noting sensations of small, hot, cold, uncomfortable and anything else you identify. In a couple of minutes, start hearing sounds within the room, without considering them. Just listen. <br><br>Open your eyes, when it feels right and look around just like you are seeing for the first time. Rest your eyes on an item for half a second, examining it without talking about it in your head. Then move to another object, and another, while still maintaining an awareness of your body, your respiration, and any sounds. Stay in this state of mindfulness and soon you are prepared to stand up. <br><br>Being aware of your system, air and instant environment, puts you more fully "in the moment." Your brain is in an exceedingly receptive state, with less psychological distractions that prevent clear thinking. Carrying out a mindfulness exercise before important psychological jobs will give you better head energy, particularly more concentration and attention. <br><br>A Level Easier Mindfulness Technique <br><br>Try this one today: When you feel stressed, end, and carefully watch yourself to spot what is worrying you. Maybe you are expecting something bad to happen, or a disagreement goes on just below the surface of your awareness, or you"re worried about something, or in pain in some way. Make a note of whatever you find. <br><br>Then deal with these mind-irritants. Make a phone call that"s on your mind, just take an aspirin, apologise to whoever you were fighting with. Create things on tomorrow"s list, to get them off your mind. Should people hate to be taught supplementary resources about [http://www.revish.com/people/meditationbeginnerszjd/ mbsr london], there are many on-line databases you should think about pursuing. Tell yourself that, If there is nothing you are able to do at the moment. Try this exercise, and you"ll feel less stressed, and more in a position to pay attention to the tasks accessible. You should have more brain power today..Yoga West, <br>33-34 Westpoint, <br>Warple Way, <br>London <br>W3 0RG<br><br>If you have any questions relating to where and how you can make use of health insurance policy ([http://storify.com/direfulcus283 go to this site]), you could contact us at our own webpage. |
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| The basis of the method is the approximation that the corner frequency of the amplifier is determined by the term in the denominator of its transfer function that is linear in frequency. This approximation can be extremely inaccurate in some cases where a zero in the numerator is near in frequency.<ref name=Thompson>
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| {{cite book
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| |author=Marc T. Thompson
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| |title=Intuitive analog circuit design: a problem solving approach using design case studies
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| |page=Chapter 7; p.161–167
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| |year= 2006
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| |publisher=Elsevier/Newnes
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| |location=Oxford UK/ Amsterdam
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| |isbn=0-7506-7786-4
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| |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1Tyzjmf0DI8C&pg=PA8&dq=isbn:0750677864&sig=_bN2G6m_hZ3-mdyUhDSEJPrxGLI#PPA161,M1}}
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| </ref>
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| The method also uses a simplified method for finding the term linear in frequency based upon summing the RC-products for each capacitor in the circuit, where the resistor R for a selected capacitor is the resistance found by inserting a test source at its site and setting all other capacitors to zero. Hence the name ''zero-value time constant technique''.
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| ==Example: Simple RC network==
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| [[File:Open-circuit time constant.PNG|thumbnail|500px|Figure 1: Simple RC circuit and auxiliary circuits to find time constants]]
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| Figure 1 shows a simple RC low-pass filter. Its [[transfer function]] is found using [[Kirchhoff's laws|Kirchhoff's current law]] as follows. At the output,
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| ::<math> \frac {V_1 - V_O } {R_2} = j\omega C_2 V_O \ , </math>
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| where ''V''<sub>1</sub> is the voltage at the top of capacitor ''C''<sub>1</sub>. At the center node:
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| ::<math> \frac {V_S-V_1}{R_1} = j \omega C_1 V_1 + \frac {V_1-V_O} {R_2} \ . </math>
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| Combining these relations the transfer function is found to be:
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| ::<math> \frac {V_O} {V_S} = \frac {1} {1 + j \omega \left(C_2 (R_1+R_2) +C_1 R_1 \right) +(j \omega )^2 C_1 C_2 R_1 R_2 } </math>
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| The linear term in ''j''ω in this transfer function can be derived by the following method, which is an application of the open-circuit time constant method to this example.
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| # Set the signal source to zero.
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| # Select capacitor ''C''<sub>2</sub>, replace it by a test voltage ''V''<sub>X</sub>, and replace ''C''<sub>1</sub> by an open circuit. Then the resistance seen by the test voltage is found using the circuit in the middle panel of Figure 1 and is simply ''V''<sub>X</sub> / ''I''<sub>X</sub> = ''R''<sub>1</sub> + ''R''<sub>2</sub>. Form the product ''C''<sub>2</sub> ( ''R''<sub>1</sub> + ''R''<sub>2</sub> ).
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| # Select capacitor ''C''<sub>1</sub>, replace it by a test voltage ''V''<sub>X</sub>, and replace ''C''<sub>2</sub> by an open circuit. Then the resistance seen by the test voltage is found using the circuit in the right panel of Figure 1 and is simply ''V''<sub>X</sub> / ''I''<sub>X</sub> = ''R''<sub>1</sub>. Form the product ''C''<sub>1</sub> ''R''<sub>1</sub>.
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| # Add these terms.
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| In effect, it is as though each capacitor charges and discharges through the resistance found in the circuit when the other capacitor is an open circuit.
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| The open circuit time constant procedure provides the linear term in ''j''ω regardless of how complex the RC network becomes. For a complex circuit, the procedure consists of following the above rules, going through all the capacitors in the circuit. A more general derivation is found in Gray and Meyer. <ref name=Gray-Meyer>
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| {{cite book
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| |author=Paul R. Gray, Hurst P J Lewis S H & Meyer RG
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| |title=Analysis and design of analog integrated circuits
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| |page=§7.3.2 pp. 517–520
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| |year= 2001
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| |edition=Fourth Edition
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| |publisher=Wiley
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| |location=New York
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| |isbn=0-471-32168-0
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| |url=http://worldcat.org/isbn/0-471-32168-0}}
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| </ref>
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| So far the result is general, but an approximation is introduced to make use of this result: the assumption is made that this linear term in ''j''ω determines the corner frequency of the circuit.
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| That assumption can be examined more closely using the example of Figure 1: suppose the time constants of this circuit are τ<sub>1</sub> and τ<sub>2</sub>; that is:
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| ::<math> \left( 1 + j \omega { \tau}_1) (1 +j \omega {\tau}_2 \right) = 1 + j \omega \left(C_2 (R_1+R_2) +C_1 R_1 \right) +(j \omega )^2 C_1 C_2 R_1 R_2 </math>
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| Comparing the coefficients of the linear and quadratic terms in ''j''ω, there results:
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| ::<math> \tau_1 + \tau_2 = C_2 (R_1+R_2) +C_1 R_1 \ , </math>
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| ::<math> \tau_1 \tau_2 = C_1 C_2 R_1 R_2 \ . </math>
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| One of the two time constants will be the longest; let it be τ<sub>1</sub>. Suppose for the moment that it is much larger than the other, τ<sub>1</sub> >> τ<sub>2</sub>. In this case, the approximations hold that:
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| ::<math> \tau_1 + \tau_2 \approx \tau_1 \ , </math>
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| ::<math> \tau_2 = \frac {\tau_1 \tau_2 } { \tau_1} \approx \frac {\tau_1 \tau_2 } { \tau_1 + \tau_2 } \ . </math>
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| In other words, substituting the RC-values:
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| ::<math> \tau_1 \approx \hat { \tau_1} =\ \tau_1 + \tau_2 = C_2 (R_1+R_2) +C_1 R_1 \ , </math>
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| and
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| ::<math> \tau_2 \approx \hat { \tau_2} =\frac {\tau_1 \tau_2 } { \tau_1 + \tau_2 } = \frac {C_1 C_2 R_1 R_2} {C_2 (R_1+R_2) +C_1 R_1} \ , </math>
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| where ( ^ ) denotes the approximate result. As an aside, notice that the circuit time constants both involve both capacitors; in other words, in general the circuit time constants are not decided by any single capacitor. Using these results, it is easy to explore how well the corner frequency (the 3dB frequency) is given by
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| ::<math> f_{3dB} = \frac {1} {2 \pi \hat{ \tau_1 }} \ , </math>
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| [[File:Open Circuit Time Constant Estimates.PNG|thumbnail|400px|Figure 2: Comparison of OCTC estimates with actual pole positions]]
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| as the parameters vary. Also, the exact transfer function can be compared with the approximate one, that is,
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| ::<math> \frac {1} {(1+j \omega \tau_1)(1 + j \omega \tau_2)}\ </math> <math> \ </math>   with   <math> \ </math> <math>\ \frac {1} {(1+j \omega \hat {\tau_1 })(1 + j \omega \hat { \tau_2} )} \ . </math>
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| Of course agreement is good when the assumption τ<sub>1</sub> >> τ<sub>2</sub> is accurate.
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| Figure 2 illustrates the approximation. The x-axis is the ratio τ<sub>1</sub> / τ<sub>2</sub> on a logarithmic scale. An increase in this variable means the higher pole is further above the corner frequency. The y-axis is the ratio of the OCTC (open-circuit time constant) estimate to the true time constant. For the lowest pole use curve T_1; this curve refers to the corner frequency; and for the higher pole use curve T_2. The worst agreement is for τ<sub>1</sub> = τ<sub>2</sub>. In this case τ<sup>^</sup><sub>1</sub> = 2 τ<sub>1</sub> and the corner frequency is a factor of 2 too small. The higher pole is a factor of 2 too high (its time constant is half of the real value).
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| In all cases, the estimated corner frequency is closer than a factor of two from the real one, and always is ''conservative'' that is, lower than the real corner, so the actual circuit will behave better than predicted. However, the higher pole always is ''optimistic'', that is, predicts the high pole at a higher frequency than really is the case. To use these estimates for [[Step response#Control_of_overshoot|step response]] predictions, which depend upon the ratio of the two pole frequencies (see article on [[Pole splitting#Selection_of_CC|pole splitting]] for an example), Figure 2 suggests a fairly large ratio of τ<sub>1</sub> / τ<sub>2</sub> is needed for accuracy because the errors in τ<sup>^</sup><sub>1</sub> and τ<sup>^</sup><sub>2</sub> reinforce each other in the ratio τ<sup>^</sup><sub>1</sub> / τ<sup>^</sup><sub>2</sub>.
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| The open-circuit time constant method focuses upon the corner frequency alone, but as seen above, estimates for higher poles also are possible.
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| Application of the open-circuit time constant method to a number of single transistor amplifier stages can be found in Pittet and Kandaswamy.<ref name=Pittet>
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| {{cite book
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| |author=Andre Pittet & A. Kandaswamy
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| |title=Analog electronics
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| |page=Chapter 4; pp. 155–166
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| |year= 2005
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| |publisher=Prentice-Hall of India
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| |location=New Delhi
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| |isbn=81-203-2784-5
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| |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=TjFkX93jyRAC&pg=PA148&lpg=PA148&dq=+%22open+circuit+time+constant+method%22&source=web&ots=f5l4AnV2P2&sig=zQLf2qPbvj8xwTxa_ZUS0VGiIzw#PPA155,M1}}
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| </ref>
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| ==References and notes==
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| <references/>
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| [[Category:Electronic design]]
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| [[Category:Electronic engineering]]
| |
Standard mindfulness workouts where disturbances are release put you in a situation of awareness, and the mind power has the capacity to function better. They help you feel more clearly and concentrate better. Should people wish to get more on mindfulness london, we recommend many resources you might consider investigating. They"re also simple exercises to complete.
More Head Power in Minutes
A simple mindfulness exercise starts with seated, calming and breathing deeply through your nose. Close your eyes and be aware of your breath going in and out. For a second interpretation, please peep at: mbsr london. Following a second, move your attention to the body, one part at a time, noting sensations of small, hot, cold, uncomfortable and anything else you identify. In a couple of minutes, start hearing sounds within the room, without considering them. Just listen.
Open your eyes, when it feels right and look around just like you are seeing for the first time. Rest your eyes on an item for half a second, examining it without talking about it in your head. Then move to another object, and another, while still maintaining an awareness of your body, your respiration, and any sounds. Stay in this state of mindfulness and soon you are prepared to stand up.
Being aware of your system, air and instant environment, puts you more fully "in the moment." Your brain is in an exceedingly receptive state, with less psychological distractions that prevent clear thinking. Carrying out a mindfulness exercise before important psychological jobs will give you better head energy, particularly more concentration and attention.
A Level Easier Mindfulness Technique
Try this one today: When you feel stressed, end, and carefully watch yourself to spot what is worrying you. Maybe you are expecting something bad to happen, or a disagreement goes on just below the surface of your awareness, or you"re worried about something, or in pain in some way. Make a note of whatever you find.
Then deal with these mind-irritants. Make a phone call that"s on your mind, just take an aspirin, apologise to whoever you were fighting with. Create things on tomorrow"s list, to get them off your mind. Should people hate to be taught supplementary resources about mbsr london, there are many on-line databases you should think about pursuing. Tell yourself that, If there is nothing you are able to do at the moment. Try this exercise, and you"ll feel less stressed, and more in a position to pay attention to the tasks accessible. You should have more brain power today..Yoga West,
33-34 Westpoint,
Warple Way,
London
W3 0RG
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