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| The quantities of [[nitrogen]], [[phosphorus]], and other biologically useful nutrients are the
| | It depends on the quality of the Wordpress theme but even if it's not a professional one you will be able to average 50-60$ EACH link. You can either install Word - Press yourself or use free services offered on the web today. A pinch of tablet centric strategy can get your Word - Press site miles ahead of your competitors, so here are few strategies that will give your Wordpress websites and blogs an edge over your competitors:. If you're using Wordpress and want to make your blog a "dofollow" blog, meaning that links from your blog pass on the benefits of Google pagerank, you can install one of the many dofollow plugins available. If you are happy with your new look then click "Activate 'New Theme'" in the top right corner. <br><br>Thus, it is imperative that you must Hire Word - Press Developers who have the expertise and proficiency in delivering theme integration and customization services. If a newbie missed a certain part of the video then they could always rewind. Which is perfect for building a mobile site for business use. You can up your site's rank with the search engines by simply taking a bit of time with your site. If you cherished this post and you would like to acquire far more information relating to [http://sideturkei.com/profile/kumcevilly wordpress backup] kindly take a look at our own webpage. Now a days it has since evolved into a fully capable CMS platform which make it, the best platform in the world for performing online business. <br><br>Photography is an entire activity in itself, and a thorough discovery of it is beyond the opportunity of this content. But if you are not willing to choose cost to the detriment of quality, originality and higher returns, then go for a self-hosted wordpress blog and increase the presence of your business in this new digital age. You can now search through the thousands of available plugins to add all kinds of functionality to your Word - Press site. User friendly features and flexibility that Word - Press has to offer is second to none. For any web design and development assignment, this is definitely one of the key concerns, specifically for online retail outlets as well as e-commerce websites. <br><br>The primary differences are in the plugins that I install, as all sites don't need all the normal plugins. I have compiled a few tips on how you can start a food blog and hopefully the following information and tips can help you to get started on your food blogging creative journey. Some examples of its additional features include; code inserter (for use with adding Google Analytics, Adsense section targeting etc) Webmaster verification assistant, Link Mask Generator, Robots. It's now become a great place to sell it thanks to Woo - Commerce. Make sure you have the latest versions of all your plugins are updated. <br><br>This advice is critical because you don't want to waste too expensive time establishing your Word - Press blog the exact method. In fact portfolio Word - Press themes is a smooth and attractive but considerably flawed Word - Press theme in creating simpler to the photographers or designers to develop a specific internet site showcasing their most current perform since it appear modern-day and has fantastic typography and large photographs which would develop an attractive wanting portfolio internet site. While deciding couple should consider the expertise of the doctor,clinics success rate,the costs of fertility treatment,including fertility tests and IVF costs and overall ones own financial budget. And, it is better that you leave it on for the duration you are writing plugin code. Verify whether your company has a team of developers or programmers having hands-on experience and knowledge about all Word - Press concepts. |
| primary determinants of a body of water's '''trophic state index''' (TSI). Nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus
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| tend to be [[limiting resource]]s in standing water bodies, so increased concentrations tend to
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| result in increased plant growth, followed by corollary increases in subsequent [[trophic level]]s.
| |
| <ref name="trophic_confusion">Note that this use of trophic levels refers to feeding
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| dynamics, and has a much different meaning than a body of water's ''trophic index''.</ref> Consequently,
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| a body of water's trophic index may sometimes be used to make a rough estimate of its biological
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| condition.<ref name="USEPA_carlson">United States Environmental Protection Agency (2007) Carlson's
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| Trophic State Index. ''Aquatic Biodiversity''. http://www.epa.gov/bioindicators/aquatic/carlson.html
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| ''accessed 17 February 2008''.</ref> Although the term "trophic index" is commonly applied to
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| lakes, any surface water body may be indexed.
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| [[File:Lake George from village beach.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Lake George (New York)|Lake George]], [[New York]], [[USA]], an [[oligotrophic lake]].]]
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| | |
| ==Carlson's Trophic State Index==
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| Carlson's index is one of the more commonly used trophic indices and is the trophic index used
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| by the United States [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|Environmental Protection Agency]].<ref name="USEPA_carlson" /> The
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| ''trophic state'' is defined as the total weight of [[Biomass (ecology)|biomass]] in a given water body at the time of measurement. Because they are of public concern, the Carlson index uses the algal biomass as | |
| an objective classifier of a lake or other water body's trophic status.<ref
| |
| name="Carlson1977">Carlson, R.E. (1977) A trophic state index for lakes. ''Limnology and
| |
| Oceanography''. 22:2 361--369.</ref> According to the US EPA, the Carlson Index should only be
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| used with lakes that have relatively few rooted plants and non-algal turbidity sources.<ref
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| name="USEPA_carlson" />
| |
| | |
| ===Index variables===
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| Because they tend to correlate, three independent variables can be used to calculate the Carlson
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| Index: ''[[chlorophyll|chlorophyll pigments]]'', ''total phosphorus'' and ''[[Secchi depth]]''. Of these three,
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| chlorophyll will probably yield the most accurate measures, as it is the most accurate predictor
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| of biomass. Phosphorus may be a more accurate estimation of a water body's summer trophic status than
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| chlorophyll if the measurements are made during the winter. Finally, the Secchi depth is probably
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| the least accurate measure, but also the most affordable and expedient one. Consequently, citizen
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| monitoring programs and other volunteer or large-scale surveys will often use the Secchi depth.
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| By translating the Secchi transparency values to a log base 2 scale, each successive doubling of
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| biomass is represented as a whole integer index number.<ref name="Carlson1996">Carlson R.E. and J.
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| Simpson (1996) A Coordinator's Guide to Volunteer Lake Monitoring Methods. ''North American Lake
| |
| Management Society''. 96 pp.</ref> The Secchi depth, which measures water
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| transparency, indicates the concentration of dissolved and particulate material in the water,
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| which in turn can be used to derive the biomass. This relationship is expressed in the following
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| equation:
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| | |
| <math>\left(\frac{1}{z}\right)\left(\ln \frac{I_{0}}{I_{z}}\right) = k_{w} + \alpha C</math>
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| :where ''z'' = the depth at which the disk disappears,
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| :''I<sub>0</sub>'' is the intensity of light striking the water's surface,
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| :''I<sub>z</sub>'' is about 10% of ''I<sub>0</sub>'' and is considered a constant,
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| :''k<sub>w</sub>'' is a coefficient for the attenuation of light by water and dissolved substances,
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| :''α'' is treated as a constant with the units of square meters per milligram and
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| :''C'' is the concentration of particulate matter in units for milligrams per cubic meter.<ref name="Carlson1977" />
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| | |
| ==Trophic classifications==
| |
| A lake is usually classified as being in one of three possible classes: ''oligotrophic'',
| |
| ''mesotrophic'' or ''eutrophic''. Lakes with extreme trophic indices may also be considered
| |
| ''hyperoligotrophic'' or ''hypereutrophic''. The table below demonstrates how the index values
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| translate into trophic classes.
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| | |
| {| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
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| |-
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| !style="background:#efefef;"|TI
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| !style="background:#efefef;"|Chl
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| !style="background:#efefef;"|P
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| !style="background:#efefef;"|SD
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| !style="background:#efefef;"|Trophic Class
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| |- valign="middle"
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| |align="center"|<30—40
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| |align="center"|0—2.6
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| |align="center"|0—12
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| |align="center"|>8—4
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| |align="left"|Oligotrophic
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| |- valign="middle"
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| |align="center"|40—50
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| |align="center"|2.6—20
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| |align="center"|12—24
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| |align="center"|4—2
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| |align="left"|Mesotrophic
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| |- valign="middle"
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| |align="center"|50—70
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| |align="center"|20—56
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| |align="center"|24—96
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| |align="center"|2—0.5
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| |align="left"|Eutrophic
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| |- valign="middle"
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| |align="center"|70—100+
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| |align="center"|56—155+
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| |align="center"|96—384+
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| |align="center"|0.5—<0.25
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| |align="left"|Hypereutrophic
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| |+ ''Relationships between Trophic Index (TI), chlorophyll (Chl), phosphorus (P, both micrograms per litre), Secchi depth (SD, metres), and Trophic Class (after Carlson 1996<ref name="Carlson1996" />)''
| |
| |}
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| | |
| Oligotrophic lakes generally host very little or no [[aquatic plant|aquatic vegetation]] and are relatively clear,
| |
| while eutrophic lakes tend to host large quantities of organisms, including algal blooms. Each
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| trophic class supports different types of fish and other organisms, as well. If the algal
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| biomass in a lake or other water body reaches too high a concentration (say >80 TI),
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| massive [[fish die-off]]s may occur as decomposing biomass deoxygenates the water.
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| | |
| ===Oligotrophic===
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| [[File:Kurtkowiec i czerwone.jpg|thumb|[[Kurtkowiec Lake]], an oligotrophic lake in the [[Tatra Mountains]] of southern [[Poland]]]]
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| | |
| An oligotrophic lake is a lake with low [[primary productivity]], the result of low [[nutrient]] content. These lakes have low [[algal]] production, and consequently, often have very clear waters, with high [[drinking water|drinking-water]] quality. The bottom waters of such lakes typically have ample [[oxygen]]; thus, such lakes often support many [[fish]] species, like lake [[trout]], which require cold, well-[[Oxygenation (environmental)|oxygenated]] waters. The oxygen content is likely to be higher in deep lakes, owing to their larger [[hypolimnion|hypolimnetic]] volume.
| |
| | |
| Ecologists use the term [[oligotroph]]ic to distinguish unproductive lakes, characterised by nutrient deficiency, from productive, eutrophic lakes, with an ample or excessive nutrient supply. Oligotrophic lakes are most common in cold regions underlain by resistant [[igneous]] rocks (especially [[granitic]] bedrock).
| |
| | |
| ===Mesotrophic===
| |
| [[Mesotrophic lake]]s are lakes with an intermediate level of productivity. These lakes are commonly clear water lakes and ponds with beds of submerged aquatic plants and medium levels of nutrients.
| |
| | |
| The term [[mesotrophic]] is also applied to terrestrial habitats. Mesotrophic soils have moderate nutrient levels.
| |
| | |
| ===Eutrophic===
| |
| {{Main|Eutrophication}}
| |
| [[Image:River algae Sichuan.jpg|thumb|upright|Algal bloom in a village river in the mountains near [[Chengdu]], [[Sichuan]], China]]
| |
| | |
| A eutrophic body of water, commonly a lake or pond, has high biological productivity. Due to excessive nutrients, especially nitrogen and phosphorus, these water bodies are able to support an abundance of aquatic plants. Usually the water body will be dominated either by aquatic plants or algae. When aquatic plants dominate the water tends to be clear. When algae dominates the water tends to be darker. The algae engages in photosynthesis which supplies oxygen to the fish and biota which inhabit these waters. Occasionally an excessive algae bloom will occur and can ultimately result in fish kills due to respiration by algae and bottom living bacteria. The process of [[eutrophication]] can occur naturally and by
| |
| human impact on the environment.
| |
| | |
| ''Eutrophic'' comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''eutrophos'' meaning ''well-nourished'', from ''eu'' meaning good and ''trephein'' meaning ''to nourish''<ref>Definition of [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/eutrophic eutrophic] at [[dictionary.com]].</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===Hypereutrophic===
| |
| Hypereutrophic lakes are very nutrient-rich lakes characterized by frequent and severe nuisance [[algal blooms]] and low transparency. Hypereutrophic lakes have a visibility depth of less than 3 feet, they have greater than 40 micrograms/litre total [[chlorophyll]] and greater than 100 micrograms/liter [[phosphorus]].
| |
| | |
| The excessive algal blooms can also significantly reduce oxygen levels and prevent life from functioning at lower depths creating dead zones beneath the surface.
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| | |
| Likewise, large algal blooms can cause [[biodilution]] to occur, which is a decrease in the concentration of a pollutant with an increase in [[trophic level]]. This is opposed to [[biomagnification]] and is due to a decreased concentration from increased algal uptake.
| |
| | |
| ==Trophic Index drivers==
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| Both natural and [[anthropogenic]] factors can influence a lake or other water body's Trophic Index.
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| A water body situated in a nutrient-rich region with high [[Net Primary Productivity]] may be
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| naturally eutrophic. Nutrients carried into water bodies from [[non-point sources]] such as
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| agricultural runoff, residential fertilisers, and sewage will all increase the algal [[Biomass (ecology)|biomass]], and can easily cause an oligotrophic lake to become hypereutrophic.
| |
| | |
| ==Management targets==
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| Often, the desired Trophic Index differs between stakeholders. Water-fowl enthusiasts (e.g. duck
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| hunters) may want a lake to be eutrophic so that it will support a large population of waterfowl.
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| Residents, on the other hand, may want the same lake to be oligotrophic, as this is more pleasant
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| for swimming and boating. Natural Resource agencies are generally responsible for reconciling
| |
| these conflicting uses and determining what a water body's trophic index should be.
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| | |
| ==See also==
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| * [[Biomass (ecology)]]
| |
| * [[Eutrophication]]
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| * [[Nonpoint source pollution]]
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| * [[Secchi disk]]
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| * [[Surface runoff]]
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| * [[Trophic level]]
| |
| * [[Trophic level index]], a similar measure used in New Zealand
| |
| * [[Water quality]]
| |
| | |
| ==References==
| |
| {{Reflist}}
| |
| | |
| {{aquatic ecosystem topics|expanded=none}}
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| {{modelling ecosystems}}
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| | |
| {{DEFAULTSORT:Trophic State Index}}
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| [[Category:Aquatic ecology]]
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| [[Category:Environmental science]]
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| [[Category:Water pollution]]
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| [[Category:Lakes]]
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| [[Category:Limnology]]
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| | |
| [[cs:Oligotrofní jezero]]
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| [[de:Trophiesystem]]
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| [[et:Mesotroofne järv]]
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| [[et:Oligotroofne järv]]
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| [[es:Lago oligotrófico]]
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| [[es:Lago mesotrófico]]
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| [[eo:Meznivelnutra]]
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| [[lv:Eitrofs]]
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| [[no:Næringsfattig innsjø]]
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| [[nn:Oligotrofe vatn]]
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| [[pl:Jezioro mezotroficzne]]
| |
| [[pl:Jezioro oligotroficzne]]
| |
| [[pt:Mesotrófico]]
| |
| [[sl:Trofično stanje]]
| |
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