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| {{Other uses|Battery (disambiguation)}}
| | It involves expertise and knowledge of various tools and technologies used for creating websites. Also, you may want to opt for a more professioanl theme if you are planning on showing your site off to a high volume of potential customers each day. * A community forum for debate of the product together with some other customers in the comments spot. Keep reading for some great Word - Press ideas you can start using today. You can easily customize the titles of the posts in Word - Press blog in a way that only title comes in the new post link and not the date or category of posts. <br><br> |
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| [[File:Batteries.jpg|thumb|Various cells and batteries (top-left to bottom-right): two [[AA battery|AA]], one [[D battery|D]], one handheld [[ham radio]] battery, two [[9-volt battery|9-volt]] (PP3), two [[AAA battery|AAA]], one [[C battery|C]], one [[camcorder]] battery, one [[cordless phone]] battery.]]
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| An electric '''battery''' is a device consisting of one or more [[electrochemical cell]]s that convert stored chemical [[energy]] into electrical energy. Each cell contains a positive terminal, or [[cathode]], and a negative terminal, or [[anode]]. [[Electrolyte|Electrolytes]] allow ions to move between the electrodes and terminals, which allows current to flow out of the battery to perform work.
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| [[Primary battery|Primary]] (single-use or "disposable") batteries are used once and discarded; the electrode materials are irreversibly changed during discharge. Common examples are the alkaline battery used for [[flashlight]]s and a multitude of portable devices. [[Secondary battery|Secondary]] ([[rechargeable batteries]]) can be discharged and recharged multiple times; the original composition of the electrodes can be restored by reverse current. Examples include the lead-acid batteries used in vehicles and lithium ion batteries used for portable electronics. Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature cells used to power [[hearing aid]]s and wristwatches to battery banks the size of rooms that provide standby power for [[telephone exchange]]s and computer [[data center]]s.
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| According to a 2005 estimate, the worldwide battery industry generates [[United States dollar|US$]]48 [[1000000000 (number)|billion]] in sales each year,<ref>[http://www.dfj.com/cgi-bin/artman/publish/article_141.shtml Power Shift: DFJ on the lookout for more power source investments].''Draper Fisher Jurvetson''. Retrieved 20 November 2005.</ref> with 6% annual growth.
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| Batteries have much lower [[specific energy]] (energy per unit mass) than common [[fuel]]s such as [[gasoline]]. This is somewhat mitigated by the fact that batteries deliver their energy as electricity (which can be converted efficiently to mechanical work), whereas using fuels in engines entails a low efficiency of conversion to work.
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| {{toclimit|3}}
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| == History ==
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| {{Main|History of the battery}}
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| [[File:Battery symbol2.svg|thumb|upright|The [[electronic symbol|symbol]] for a battery in a [[circuit diagram]]. It originated as a schematic drawing of the earliest type of battery, a voltaic pile.]]
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| The usage of "battery" to describe a group electrical devices dates to [[Benjamin Franklin]], who in 1748 described multiple [[Leyden jar]]s by analogy to a [[artillery battery|battery of cannon]]<ref>Bellis, Mary. [http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blbattery.htm History of the Electric Battery]. ''About.com''. Retrieved 11 August 2008.</ref> (Benjamin Franklin borrowed the term "battery" from the military, which refers to weapons functioning together<ref>http://environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/energy/great-energy-challenge/battery-quiz/</ref>). [[Alessandro Volta]] described the first electrochemical battery, the [[voltaic pile]] in 1800.<ref>Bellis, Mary. [http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/bl_Alessandro_Volta.htm Alessandro Volta – Biography of Alessandro Volta – Stored Electricity and the First Battery]. ''About.com''. Retrieved 7 August 2008.</ref> This was a stack of copper and zinc plates, separated by brine soaked paper disks, that could produce a steady current for a considerable length of time. Volta did not appreciate that the voltage was due to chemical reactions. He thought that his cells were an inexhaustible source of energy,<ref>Stinner, Arthur. [http://home.cc.umanitoba.ca/~stinner/stinner/pdfs/2007-alessandro.pdf Alessandro Volta and Luigi Galvani] (PDF). Retrieved 11 August 2008.</ref> and that the associated corrosion effects at the electrodes were a mere nuisance, rather than an unavoidable consequence of their operation, as [[Michael Faraday]] showed in 1834.<ref>[http://www.ideafinder.com/history/inventions/battery.htm Electric Battery History – Invention of the Electric Battery]. ''The Great Idea Finder''. Retrieved 11 August 2008.</ref>
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| Although early batteries were of great value for experimental purposes, in practice their voltages fluctuated and they could not provide a large current for a sustained period. The [[Daniell cell]], invented in 1836 by British chemist [[John Frederic Daniell]], was the first practical source of electricity, becoming an industry standard and seeing widespread adoption as a power source for [[electrical telegraph]] networks.<ref>[http://www.mpoweruk.com/history.htm#daniell Battery History, Technology, Applications and Development]. ''MPower Solutions Ltd''. Retrieved 19 March 2007.</ref> It consisted of a copper pot filled with a [[copper sulfate]] solution, in which was immersed an unglazed [[earthenware]] container filled with [[sulfuric acid]] and a zinc electrode.<ref>{{cite web |title=History of the electrical units |first=Gérard |last=Borvon |date=September 10, 2012 |publisher=Association S-EAU-S |url=http://seaus.free.fr/spip.php?article964}}</ref>
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| These wet cells used liquid electrolytes, which were prone to leakage and spillage if not handled correctly. Many used glass jars to hold their components, which made them fragile. These characteristics made wet cells unsuitable for portable appliances. Near the end of the nineteenth century, the invention of [[dry cell|dry cell batteries]], which replaced the liquid electrolyte with a paste, made portable electrical devices practical.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://portal.acs.org/portal/PublicWebSite/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/drycellbattery/index.htm |title = Columbia Dry Cell Battery |publisher = American Chemical Society |work = National Historic Chemical Landmarks |accessdate= March 25, 2013}}</ref>
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| == Principle of operation ==
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| {{Main|Electrochemical cell}}
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| [[File:ElectrochemCell.png|thumb|A voltaic cell for demonstration purposes. In this example the two half-cells are linked by a [[salt bridge]] separator that permits the transfer of ions, but not water molecules.]]
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| Batteries convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy. A battery consists of some number of voltaic cells. Each cell consists of two [[half-cell]]s connected in series by a conductive electrolyte containing anions and cations. One half-cell includes electrolyte and the negative electrode, the electrode to which [[Cathion|anions]] (negatively charged ions) migrate; the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the positive electrode electrode to which [[Cathion|cations]] (positively charged ions) migrate. [[Redox]] reactions power the battery. Cations are reduced (electrons are added) at the cathode during charging, while anions are oxidized (electrons are removed) at the anode during discharge.<ref>Dingrando 665.</ref> The electrodes do not touch each other, but are electrically connected by the [[electrolyte]]. Some cells use different electrolytes for each half-cell. A separator allows ions to flow between half-cells, but prevents mixing of the electrolytes.
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| Each half-cell has an electromotive force (or emf), determined by its ability to drive electric current from the interior to the exterior of the cell. The net emf of the cell is the difference between the emfs of its half-cells.<ref name="Saslow 338">Saslow 338.</ref> Thus, if the electrodes have emfs <math>\mathcal{E}_1</math> and <math>\mathcal{E}_2</math>, then the net emf is <math>\mathcal{E}_{2}-\mathcal{E}_{1}</math>; in other words, the net emf is the difference between the [[reduction potential]]s of the [[half-reaction]]s.<ref>Dingrando 666.</ref>
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| The electrical driving force or <math>\displaystyle{\Delta V_{bat}}</math> across the [[battery terminal|terminals]] of a cell is known as the ''terminal voltage (difference)'' and is measured in [[volt]]s.<ref name="pse943">Knight 943.</ref> The terminal voltage of a cell that is neither charging nor discharging is called the [[open-circuit voltage]] and equals the emf of the cell. Because of internal resistance,<ref name="pse976">Knight 976.</ref> the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is smaller in magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is charging exceeds the open-circuit voltage.<ref>[http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0030399.html Terminal Voltage – Tiscali Reference]. Originally from ''Hutchinson Encyclopaedia''. Retrieved 7 April 2007.</ref> An ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it would maintain a constant terminal voltage of <math>\mathcal{E}</math> until exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a cell maintained 1.5 volts and stored a charge of one [[coulomb]] then on complete discharge it would perform 1.5 [[joule]]s of work.<ref name=pse943 /> In actual cells, the internal resistance increases under discharge<ref name="pse976" /> and the open circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. If the voltage and resistance are plotted against time, the resulting graphs typically are a curve; the shape of the curve varies according to the chemistry and internal arrangement employed.
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| The voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of the chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. [[Alkaline battery|Alkaline]] and [[Zinc–carbon battery|zinc–carbon]] cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts; likewise [[Nickel–cadmium battery|NiCd]] and [[Nickel–metal hydride battery|NiMH]] cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts.<ref>Dingrando 674.</ref> The high electrochemical potential changes in the reactions of [[lithium]] compounds give lithium cells emfs of 3 volts or more.<ref>Dingrando 677.</ref>
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| == Categories and types of batteries ==
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| {{Main|List of battery types}}
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| [[File:Batteries comparison 4,5 D C AA AAA AAAA A23 9V CR2032 LR44 matchstick-vertical.jpeg|thumb|upright|From top to bottom: a large 4.5-volt (3R12) battery, a ''[[D battery|D Cell]]'', a ''[[C battery|C cell]]'', an ''[[AA cell]]'', an ''[[AAA cell]]'', an ''[[AAAA battery|AAAA cell]]'', an ''[[A23 battery]]'', a 9-volt ''[[PP3 battery]]'', and a pair of [[button cell]]s (CR2032 and LR44).]]
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| Batteries are classified into primary and secondary forms.
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| * ''Primary'' batteries irreversibly transform chemical energy to electrical energy. When the supply of reactants is exhausted, energy cannot be readily restored to the battery.<ref>Dingrando 675.</ref>
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| * ''Secondary'' batteries can be recharged; that is, they can have their chemical reactions reversed by supplying electrical energy to the cell, approximately restoring their original composition.<ref>Fink, Ch. 11, Sec. "Batteries and Fuel Cells."</ref>
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| Some types of primary batteries used, for example, for [[Telegraphy|telegraph]] circuits, were restored to operation by replacing the electrodes.<ref>[[Franklin Leonard Pope]], ''Modern Practice of the Electric Telegraph 15th Edition'', D. Van Nostrand Company, New York, 1899, pages 7-11. Available on the [[Internet Archive]]</ref> Secondary batteries are not indefinitely rechargeable due to dissipation of the active materials, loss of electrolyte and internal corrosion.
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| === Primary batteries ===
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| {{Main|Primary cell}}
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| Primary batteries, or [[primary cell]]s, can produce current immediately on assembly. These are most commonly used in portable devices that have low current drain, are used only intermittently, or are used well away from an alternative power source, such as in alarm and communication circuits where other electric power is only intermittently available. Disposable primary cells cannot be reliably recharged, since the chemical reactions are not easily reversible and active materials may not return to their original forms. Battery manufacturers recommend against attempting to recharge primary cells.<ref name="durcar">[http://www.duracell.com/care_disposal/care.asp Duracell: Battery Care]. Retrieved 10 August 2008.</ref>
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| In general, these have higher [[energy densities]] than rechargeable batteries,<ref name="enralk">[http://data.energizer.com/PDFs/alkaline_appman.pdf Alkaline Manganese Dioxide Handbook and Application Manual] (PDF). ''Energizer''. Retrieved 25 August 2008.</ref> but disposable batteries do not fare well under high-drain applications with [[electrical load|loads]] under 75 [[ohm]]s (75 Ω).
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| Common types of disposable batteries include [[zinc–carbon batteries]] and [[alkaline batteries]].
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| === Secondary batteries ===
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| {{Main|Rechargeable battery}}
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| Secondary batteries, also known as ''[[secondary cell]]s'', or ''[[rechargeable batteries]]'', must be charged before first use; they are usually assembled with active materials in the discharged state. Rechargeable batteries are (re)charged by applying electric current, which reverses the [[chemical reaction]]s that occur during discharge/use. Devices to supply the appropriate current are called chargers.
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| The oldest form of rechargeable battery is the [[lead–acid battery]]. This technology contains liquid electrolyte in an unsealed container, requiring that the battery be kept upright and the area be well ventilated to ensure safe dispersal of the [[hydrogen]] gas it produces during overcharging. The lead–acid battery is relatively heavy for the amount of electrical energy it can supply. Its low manufacturing cost and its high surge current levels make it common where its capacity (over approximately 10 Ah) is more important than weight and handling issues. A common application is the modern [[car battery]], which can, in general, deliver a peak current of 450 [[ampere]]s.
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| The sealed [[valve regulated lead–acid battery]] (VRLA battery) is popular in the automotive industry as a replacement for the lead–acid wet cell. The VRLA battery uses an immobilized [[sulfuric acid]] electrolyte, reducing the chance of leakage and extending shelf life.<ref>[http://www.cdtechno.com/custserv/pdf/7327.pdf Dynasty VRLA Batteries and Their Application]. ''C&D Technologies, Inc.'' Retrieved 26 August 2008.</ref> VRLA batteries immobilize the electrolyte. The two types are:
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| * ''[[Gel batteries]]'' (or "gel cell") use a semi-solid electrolyte.
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| * ''[[Absorbed Glass Mat]]'' (AGM) batteries absorb the electrolyte in a special fiberglass matting.
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| Other portable rechargeable batteries include several sealed "dry cell" types, that are useful in applications such as [[mobile phone]]s and [[Laptop|laptop computers]]. Cells of this type (in order of increasing [[power density]] and cost) include [[Nickel–cadmium battery|nickel–cadmium]] (NiCd), [[Nickel–zinc battery|nickel–zinc]] (NiZn), [[Nickel metal hydride battery|nickel metal hydride]] (NiMH), and [[Lithium-ion battery|lithium-ion]] (Li-ion) cells. Li-ion has by far the highest share of the dry cell rechargeable market. NiMH has replaced NiCd in most applications due to its higher capacity, but NiCd remains in use in [[power tool]]s, [[two-way radio]]s, and [[medical equipment]].
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| Recent developments include batteries with embedded electronics such as [[USBCELL]], which allows charging an AA battery through a [[USB]] connector,<ref>[http://www.usbcell.com/ USBCELL – Revolutionary rechargeable USB battery that can charge from any USB port]. Retrieved 6 November 2007.</ref> and [[smart battery]] packs with state-of-charge monitors and battery protection circuits that prevent damage on over-discharge. [[Low self-discharge NiMH battery|Low self-discharge]] (LSD) allows secondary cells to be charged prior to shipping.
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| === Battery cell types ===
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| Many types of electrochemical cells have been produced, with varying chemical processes and designs, including [[galvanic cell]]s, [[electrolytic cell]]s, [[fuel cell]]s, [[flow battery|flow cells]] and voltaic piles.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pspb.org/e21/media/Compare_pvfc_v108_TN.pdf |title=Spotlight on Photovoltaics & Fuel Cells: A Web-based Study & Comparison |accessdate=2007-03-14 |format=PDF |pages=1–2 }}</ref>
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| ==== Wet cell ====
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| A ''wet cell'' battery has a liquid [[electrolyte]]. Other names are ''flooded cell'', since the liquid covers all internal parts, or ''vented cell'', since gases produced during operation can escape to the air. Wet cells were a precursor to dry cells and are commonly used as a learning tool for [[electrochemistry]]. They can be built with common laboratory supplies, such as [[beaker (glassware)|beakers]], for demonstrations of how electrochemical cells work. A particular type of wet cell known as a [[concentration cell]] is important in understanding [[corrosion]]. Wet cells may be [[primary cell]]s (non-rechargeable) or [[secondary cell]]s (rechargeable). Originally, all practical primary batteries such as the [[Daniell cell]] were built as open-top glass jar wet cells. Other primary wet cells are the [[Leclanche cell]], [[Grove cell]], [[Bunsen cell]], [[Chromic acid cell]], [[Clark cell]], and [[Weston cell]]. The Leclanche cell chemistry was adapted to the first dry cells. Wet cells are still used in [[car battery|automobile batteries]] and in industry for standby power for [[switchgear]], telecommunication or large [[uninterruptible power supply|uninterruptible power supplies]], but in many places batteries with [[gel cell]]s have been used instead. These applications commonly use lead–acid or [[Nickel–cadmium battery (vented cell type)|nickel–cadmium]] cells.
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| ==== Dry cell ====
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| {{redirect|Dry cell|the heavy metal band|Dry Cell (band)}}
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| [[File:Dry cell (PSF).png|thumb|upright|Line art drawing of a dry cell: <br />
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| 1. brass cap, 2. plastic seal, 3. expansion space, 4. porous cardboard, 5. zinc can, 6. carbon rod, 7. chemical mixture.]]
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| A ''dry cell'' uses a paste electrolyte, with only enough moisture to allow current to flow. Unlike a wet cell, a dry cell can operate in any orientation without spilling, as it contains no free liquid, making it suitable for portable equipment. By comparison, the first wet cells were typically fragile glass containers with lead rods hanging from the open top and needed careful handling to avoid spillage. Lead–acid batteries did not achieve the safety and portability of the dry cell until the development of the [[gel battery]].
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| A common dry cell is the [[zinc–carbon battery]], sometimes called the dry [[Leclanché cell]], with a nominal voltage of 1.5 [[volt]]s, the same as the [[alkaline battery]] (since both use the same [[zinc]]–[[manganese dioxide]] combination).
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| A standard dry cell comprises a [[zinc]] anode, usually in the form of a cylindrical pot, with a [[carbon]] cathode in the form of a central rod. The electrolyte is [[ammonium chloride]] in the form of a paste next to the zinc anode. The remaining space between the electrolyte and carbon cathode is taken up by a second paste consisting of ammonium chloride and manganese dioxide, the latter acting as a [[depolariser]]. In some designs, the ammonium chloride is replaced by [[zinc chloride]].
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| ==== Molten salt ====
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| [[Molten salt battery|Molten salt batteries]] are primary or secondary batteries that use a molten [[salt]] as electrolyte. They operate at high temperatures and must be well insulated to retain heat.
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| ==== Reserve ====
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| A [[reserve battery]] can be stored unassembled (unactivated and supplying no power) for a long period (perhaps years). When the battery is needed, then it is assembled (e.g., by adding electrolyte); once assembled, the battery is charged and ready to work. For example, a battery for an electronic artillery [[fuze]] might be activated by the impact of firing a gun: The acceleration breaks a capsule of electrolyte that activates the battery and powers the fuze's circuits. Reserve batteries are usually designed for a short service life (seconds or minutes) after long storage (years). A [[water-activated battery]] for oceanographic instruments or military applications becomes activated on immersion in water.
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| === Battery cell performance ===
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| A battery's characteristics may vary over load cycle, over [[charge cycle]], and over lifetime due to many factors including internal chemistry, [[Electric current|current]] drain, and temperature.
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| == Capacity and discharge ==
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| [[File:Battery checker.jpg|thumb|upright|left|A device to check battery voltage]]
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| A battery's ''capacity'' is the amount of [[electric charge]] it can deliver at the rated voltage. The more electrode material contained in the cell the greater its capacity. A small cell has less capacity than a larger cell with the same chemistry, although they develop the same open-circuit voltage.<ref name=aappc /> Capacity is measured in units such as [[amp-hour]] (A·h).
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| The rated capacity of a battery is usually expressed as the product of 20 hours multiplied by the current that a new battery can consistently supply for 20 hours at {{convert|68|F|C}}, while remaining above a specified terminal voltage per cell. For example, a battery rated at 100 A·h can deliver 5 A over a 20-hour period at [[room temperature]].
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| The fraction of the stored charge that a battery can deliver depends on multiple factors, including battery chemistry, the rate at which the charge is delivered (current), the required terminal voltage, the storage period, ambient temperature and other factors.<ref name="aappc">[http://www.aaportablepower.com/BatteryKnowledge/BatteryKnowledge.asp Battery Knowledge – AA Portable Power Corp. Retrieved 16 April 2007.]</ref>{{dead link|date=July 2013}}
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| The higher the discharge rate, the lower the capacity.<ref name="techlib">[http://www.techlib.com/reference/batteries.html Battery Capacity – Techlib. Retrieved 10 April 2007]</ref> The relationship between current, discharge time and capacity for a lead acid battery is approximated (over a typical range of current values) by [[Peukert's law]]:
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| :<math>t = \frac {Q_P} {I^k}</math>
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| where
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| :<math>Q_P</math> is the capacity when discharged at a rate of 1 amp.
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| :<math>I</math> is the current drawn from battery ([[Amperes|A]]).
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| :<math>t</math> is the amount of time (in hours) that a battery can sustain.
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| :<math>k</math> is a constant around 1.3.
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| Batteries that are stored for a long period or that are discharged at a small fraction of the capacity lose capacity due to the presence of generally irreversible ''side reactions'' that consume charge carriers without producing current. This phenomenon is known as internal self-discharge. Further, when batteries are recharged, additional side reactions can occur, reducing capacity for subsequent discharges. After enough recharges, in essence all capacity is lost and the battery stops producing power.
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| Internal energy losses and limitations on the rate that ions pass through the electrolyte cause battery [[Efficient energy use|efficiency]] to vary. Above a minimum threshold, discharging at a low rate delivers more of the battery's capacity than at a higher rate.
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| Installing batteries with varying A·h ratings does not affect device operation (although it may affect the operation interval) rated for a specific voltage unless load limits are exceeded. High-drain loads such as [[digital camera]]s can reduce total capacity, as happens with alkaline batteries. For example, a battery rated at 2000 mAh for a 10- or 20-hour discharge would not sustain a current of 1 A for a full two hours as its stated capacity implies.
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| === C rate ===
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| The C-rate is the multiple of the current over the current that a battery can sustain for one hour.<ref>[http://web.mit.edu/evt/summary_battery_specifications.pdf A Guide to Understanding Battery Specifications], MIT Electric Vehicle Team, December 2008</ref> A rate of 1 C means that an entire 1.6Ah battery would be discharged in one hour at a discharge current of 1.6 A. A 2C rate would mean a discharge current of 3.2 A, over one half-hour.
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| === Fast-charging, large and light batteries ===
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| {{As of|2012}} [[lithium iron phosphate|Lithium iron phosphate ({{chem|LiFePO|4}}) battery technology]] was the fastest-charging/discharging, fully discharging in 10–20 seconds.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/nature07853}} [http://media.nature.com/download/nature/nature/podcast/v458/n7235/nature-2009-03-12.mp3 1:00-6:50 (audio)]</ref>
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| As of 2013, the world's largest battery was in [[Hebei Province]], China. It stored 36 megawatt-hours of electricity at a cost of $500 million.<ref>{{cite web|last=Dillow |first=Clay |url=http://www.popsci.com/science/article/2012-01/china-builds-worlds-largest-battery-36-megawatt-hour-behemoth |title=China Builds the World's Largest Battery, a Building-Sized, 36-Megawatt-Hour Behemoth | Popular Science |publisher=Popsci.com |date=2012-12-21 |accessdate=2013-07-31}}</ref> Another large battery, composed of [[nickel–cadmium battery|Ni–Cd]] cells, was in [[Fairbanks, Alaska]]. It covers {{convert|2000|m2}}—bigger than a football pitch—and weighs 1,300 tonnes, It was manufactured by [[ABB Group|ABB]] to provide backup power in the event of a blackout.
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| The battery can provide 40 megawatts of power for up to seven minutes.<ref>Conway, E. (2 September 2008) [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/scienceandtechnology/3312118/World%27s-biggest-battery-switched-on-in-Alaska.html "World's biggest battery switched on in Alaska"] ''Telegraph.co.uk''</ref> [[Sodium–sulfur batteries]] have been used to store [[wind power]].<ref>Biello, D. (December 22, 2008) [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=storing-the-breeze-new-battery-might-make-wind-power-reliable "Storing the Breeze: New Battery Might Make Wind Power More Reliable"] ''Scientific American''</ref> A 4.4 megawatt-hour battery system that can deliver 11 megawatts for 25 minutes stabilizes the output of the Auwahi wind farm in Hawaii.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.semprausgp.com/energy-solutions/wind-auwahi-wind.html |title=Auwahi Wind | Energy Solutions | Sempra U.S. Gas & Power, LLC |publisher=Semprausgp.com |date= |accessdate=2013-07-31}}</ref> [[Lithium–sulfur batteries]] were used on the longest and highest solar-powered flight.<ref>Amos, J. (24 August 2008) [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7577493.stm "Solar plane makes record flight"] ''BBC News''</ref> The recharging speed of lithium-ion batteries can be increased by manufacturing changes.<ref>[http://www.electronicsweekly.com/Articles/2009/03/12/45653/mit-fast-charges-li-ion-batteries.htm Increasing recharge speed of lithium-ion batteries]</ref>
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| == Battery lifetime ==
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| Available capacity of all batteries drops with decreasing temperature. In contrast to most of today's batteries, the [[Zamboni pile]], invented in 1812, offers a very long service life without refurbishment or recharge, although it supplies current only in the nanoamp range. The [[Oxford Electric Bell]] has been ringing almost continuously since 1840 on its original pair of batteries, thought to be Zamboni piles.
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| === Self-discharge ===
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| Disposable batteries typically lose 8 to 20 percent of their original charge per year when stored at room temperature (20°–30°C).<ref>[http://www.corrosion-doctors.org/Batteries/self-compare.htm Self discharge of batteries – Corrosion Doctors]. Retrieved 9 September 2007.</ref> This is known as the "self-discharge" rate, and is due to non-current-producing "side" chemical reactions that occur within the cell even when no load is applied. The rate of side reactions is reduced for batteries are stored at lower temperatures, although some can be damaged by freezing.
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| Old rechargeable batteries self-discharge more rapidly than disposable alkaline batteries, especially [[nickel]]-based batteries; a freshly charged nickel cadmium (NiCd) battery loses 10% of its charge in the first 24 hours, and thereafter discharges at a rate of about 10% a month. However, newer [[Low self-discharge NiMH battery|low self-discharge nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries]] and modern lithium designs display a lower self-discharge rate (but still higher than for primary batteries).
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| | |
| === Corrosion ===
| |
| Internal parts may corrode and fail, or the active materials may be slowly converted to inactive forms.
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| | |
| === Physical component changes ===
| |
| The active material on the battery plates changes chemical composition on each charge and discharge cycle, active material may be lost due to physical changes of volume; further limiting the number of times the battery can be recharged.
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| [[File:Recarregável.JPG|thumb|right|Rechargeable batteries.]]
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| Most nickel-based batteries are partially discharged when purchased, and must be charged before first use.<ref>[http://www.energizer.com/products/hightech-batteries/rechargeables/faq/Pages/faq.aspx Energizer Rechargeable Batteries and Chargers: Frequently Asked Questions]. ''Energizer''. Retrieved 3 February 2009.</ref> Newer NiMH batteries are ready to be used when purchased, and have only 15% discharge in a year.<ref>[http://www.eneloop.info/home/performance-details/self-discharge.html]{{dead link|date=July 2013}}</ref>
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| Some deterioration occurs on each charge–discharge cycle. Degradation usually occurs because electrolyte migrates away from the electrodes or because active material detaches from the electrodes.
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| Low-capacity NiMH batteries (1700–2000 mA·h) can be charged some 1,000 times, whereas high-capacity NiMH batteries (above 2500 mA·h) last about 500 cycles.<ref name="tomdistr">[http://www.nimhbattery.com/batteries-rechargeable-tips-win.htm Rechargeable battery Tips – NIMH Technology Information]. Retrieved 10 August 2007. {{Wayback | url=http://nimhbattery.com/batteries-rechargeable-tips-win.htm | date=20070808232821 }}</ref> NiCd batteries tend to be rated for 1,000 cycles before their internal resistance permanently increases beyond usable values.
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| | |
| === Charge/discharge speed ===
| |
| Fast charging increases component changes, shortening battery lifespan.<ref name=tomdistr />
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| | |
| === Overcharging ===
| |
| If a charger cannot detect when the battery is fully charged then overcharging is likely, damaging it.<ref>[http://www.greenbatteries.com/batterymyths.html#Quick battery myths vs battery facts – free information to help you learn the difference]. Retrieved 10 August 2007.</ref>
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| | |
| === Memory effect ===
| |
| {{see also|Nickel–cadmium battery#Memory effect}}
| |
| NiCd cells, if used in a particular repetitive manner, may show a decrease in capacity called "[[memory effect]]".<ref>[http://www.repairfaq.org/ELE/F_Battery_info.html Repair FAQ, quoting GE tech note]</ref> The effect can be avoided with simple practices. NiMH cells, although similar in chemistry, suffer less from memory effect.<ref>{{citation |url=http://rechargeablebatteryinfo.com/rechargeable-batteries-memory-effect.php |title=What does ‘memory effect’ mean? |date=28 Oct 2005 |editor=RechargheableBatteryInfo.com |accessdate=10 August 2007 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070715173404/http://rechargeablebatteryinfo.com/rechargeable-batteries-memory-effect.php |archivedate=20070715173404 }}</ref>
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| [[File:2011-04-04 18-35-26 267.jpg|thumb|An analog camcorder battery [lithium ion].]]
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| | |
| === Environmental conditions ===
| |
| [[automotive battery|Automotive]] [[lead–acid]] rechargeable batteries must endure stress due to vibration, shock, and temperature range. Because of these stresses and [[Lead–acid battery#Sulfation|sulfation]] of their lead plates, few automotive batteries last beyond six years of regular use.<ref>Rich, Vincent (1994). ''The International Lead Trade''. Cambridge: Woodhead. 129.</ref> Automotive starting <small>([[automotive battery|SLI]]: ''Starting, Lighting, Ignition'')</small> batteries have many thin plates to maximize current. In general, the thicker the plates the longer the life. They are typically discharged only slightly before recharge.
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| "Deep-cycle" lead–acid batteries such as those used in electric golf carts have much thicker plates to extend longevity.<ref>[http://www.windsun.com/Batteries/Battery_FAQ.htm Deep Cycle Battery FAQ]. ''Northern Arizona Wind & Sun''. Retrieved 3 February 2009.</ref> The main benefit of the lead–acid battery is its low cost; its main drawbacks are large size and weight for a given capacity and voltage. Lead–acid batteries should never be discharged to below 20% of their capacity,<ref>[http://www.rpc.com.au/products/batteries/car-deepcycle/carfaq14.htm Car and Deep Cycle Battery FAQ]. ''Rainbow Power Company''. Retrieved 3 February 2009.</ref> because internal resistance will cause heat and damage when they are recharged. Deep-cycle lead–acid systems often use a low-charge warning light or a low-charge power cut-off switch to prevent the type of damage that will shorten the battery's life.<ref>[http://www.energymatters.com.au/renewable-energy/batteries Deep cycle battery guide]. ''Energy Matters''. Retrieved 3 February 2009.</ref>
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| | |
| === Storage ===
| |
| Battery life can be extended by storing the batteries at a low temperature, as in a [[refrigerator]] or [[freezer]], which slows the side reactions. Such storage can extend the life of alkaline batteries by about 5%; rechargeable batteries can hold their charge much longer, depending upon type.<ref>[http://ask.yahoo.com/ask/20011219.html Ask Yahoo: Does putting batteries in the freezer make them last longer?]. Retrieved 7 March 2007.</ref> To reach their maximum voltage, batteries must be returned to room temperature; discharging an alkaline battery at 250 mA at 0°C is only half as efficient as at 20°C.<ref name="enralk" /> Alkaline battery manufacturers such as [[Duracell]] do not recommend refrigerating batteries.<ref name="durcar" />
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| == Battery sizes ==
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| {{Main|List of battery sizes}}
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| Primary batteries readily available to consumers range from tiny [[button cell]]s used for electric watches, to the No. 6 cell used for signal circuits or other long duration applications. Secondary cells are made in very large sizes; very large batteries can power a [[submarine]] or stabilize an [[electrical grid]] and help level out peak loads.
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| == Hazards ==
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| | |
| === Explosion ===
| |
| {{Unreferenced section|date=January 2012|reason=references were given, but only mentioned explosion due to extreme overheating}}
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| A battery explosion is caused by misuse or malfunction, such as attempting to recharge a primary (non-rechargeable) battery, or a [[short circuit]]. Car batteries are most likely to explode when a short-circuit generates very large currents. Car batteries produce [[hydrogen]], which is very explosive, when they are overcharged (because of [[electrolysis]] of the water in the electrolyte). The amount of overcharging is usually very small and generates little hydrogen, which dissipates quickly. However, when "jumping" a car battery, the high current can cause the rapid release of large volumes of hydrogen, which can be ignited explosively by a nearby spark, for example, when disconnecting a [[jumper cable]].
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| When a battery is recharged at an excessive rate, an explosive gas mixture of hydrogen and oxygen may be produced faster than it can escape from within the battery, leading to pressure build-up and eventual bursting of the battery case. In extreme cases, battery acid may spray violently from the casing and cause injury. Overcharging—that is, attempting to charge a battery beyond its electrical capacity—can also lead to a battery explosion, in addition to leakage or irreversible damage. It may also cause damage to the charger or device in which the overcharged battery is later used. In addition, disposing of a battery via incineration may cause an explosion as steam builds up within the sealed case.
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| | |
| === Leakage ===
| |
| [[File:LeakedBattery 2701a.jpg|thumb|right|Leaked alkaline battery.]]
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| | |
| Many battery chemicals are corrosive, poisonous or both. If leakage occurs, either spontaneously or through accident, the chemicals released may be dangerous.
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| | |
| For example, disposable batteries often use a zinc "can" both as a reactant and as the container to hold the other reagents. If this kind of battery is over-discharged, the reagents can emerge through the cardboard and plastic that form the remainder of the container. The active chemical leakage can then damage the equipment that the batteries power. For this reason, many electronic device manufacturers recommend removing the batteries from devices that will not be used for extended periods of time.
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| | |
| === Toxic materials ===
| |
| Many types of batteries employ toxic materials such as [[lead]], [[mercury (element)|mercury]], and [[cadmium]] as an electrode or electrolyte. When each battery reaches end of life it must be disposed of to prevent environmental damage.<ref>[http://www.epa.gov/epr/products/batteries.htm Batteries – Product Stewardship]. ''EPA''. Retrieved 11 September 2007.</ref> Battery are one form of [[electronic waste]] (e-waste).
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| E-waste [[recycling]] services recover toxic substances, which can then be used for new batteries.<ref>[http://earth911.org/recycling/battery-recycling Battery Recycling » Earth 911]. Retrieved 9 September 2007.</ref>
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| Of the nearly three billion batteries purchased annually in the United States, about 179,000 tons end up in landfills across the country.<ref>"San Francisco Supervisor Takes Aim at Toxic Battery Waste". ''Environmental News Network'' (11 July 2001).</ref>
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| In the United States, the [[Mercury-Containing and Rechargeable Battery Management Act]] of 1996 banned the sale of mercury-containing batteries, enacted uniform labeling requirements for rechargeable batteries and required that rechargeable batteries be easily removable.<ref>[http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/laws-regs/state/policy/p1104.pdf EPA Policy]</ref> California and New York City prohibit the disposal of rechargeable batteries in solid waste, and along with Maine require recycling of cell phones.<ref name="rbrc">[http://www.rbrc.org/consumer/howitallworks_faq.shtml?PHPSESSID=ad1e142bcdd99cd67418f2171794d892]{{dead link|date=July 2013}}</ref> The rechargeable battery industry operates nationwide recycling programs in the United States and Canada, with dropoff points at local retailers.<ref name="rbrc" />
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| The [[Battery Directive]] of the European Union has similar requirements, in addition to requiring increased recycling of batteries and promoting research on improved [[battery recycling]] methods.<ref>[http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/environment/waste_management/l21202_en.htm Disposal of spent batteries and accumulators]. ''European Union''. Retrieved 27 July 2009.</ref>
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| In accordance with this directive all batteries to be sold within the EU must be marked with the "collection symbol" (A crossed-out wheeled bin). This must cover at least 3% of the surface of prismatic batteries and 1.5% of the surface of cylindrical batteries. All packaging must be marked likewise.<ref>[http://www.epbaeurope.net/documents/Newmarkingguidelines_final8March2011.pdf New Marking Guidelines 2008 – EPBA-EU]</ref>
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| | |
| === Ingestion ===
| |
| Batteries may be harmful or fatal if [[swallowing|swallowed]].<ref>[http://data.energizer.com/PDFs/carbonzinc_psds.pdf Product Safety DataSheet – Energizer] (p. 2). Retrieved 9 September 2007.</ref>
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| | |
| Small [[button cell]]s can be swallowed, in particular by young children. While in the digestive tract, the battery's electrical discharge may lead to tissue damage;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.poison.org/battery/ |title=Swallowed a Button Battery? | Battery in the Nose or Ear? |publisher=Poison.org |date=2010-03-03 |accessdate=2013-07-26}}</ref> such damage is occasionally serious and can lead to death. Ingested disk batteries do not usually cause problems unless they become lodged in the [[gastrointestinal tract]]. The most common place for disk batteries to become lodged is the esophagus, resulting in clinical sequelae. Batteries that successfully traverse the esophagus are unlikely to lodge elsewhere. The likelihood that a disk battery will lodge in the esophagus is a function of the patient's age and battery size. Disk batteries of 16 mm have become lodged in the esophagi of 2 children younger than 1 year.{{Citation needed|date=December 2010}} <!-- or is this in Langkau et al below? --> Older children do not have problems with batteries smaller than 21–23 mm. Liquefaction necrosis may occur because sodium hydroxide is generated by the current produced by the battery (usually at the anode). Perforation has occurred as rapidly as 6 hours after ingestion.<ref>[http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/774838-overview Langkau JF, Noesges RA. Esophageal burns from battery ingestion. Am J Emerg Med. May 1985;3(3):265]</ref>
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| | |
| == Battery chemistry ==
| |
| | |
| === Primary batteries and their characteristics ===
| |
| {| class="wikitable sortable"
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Chemistry !! Anode (-) !! Cathode (+) !! Maximum Voltage (Theoretical) <br />(V) !! Working Voltage (Practical) <br />(V) !! [[Specific energy]] [MJ/kg] !! Elaboration !! Shelf Life At 25ºC (80% Capacity) (Months)
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[Zinc–carbon battery|Zinc–carbon]] || Zn || MnO<sub>2</sub> || 1.6 || 1.2 || 0.13 || Inexpensive. || 18
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[Zinc–chloride battery|Zinc–chloride]] || || || 1.5 || || || Also known as "heavy-duty", inexpensive. ||
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| |-
| |
| | [[Alkaline battery|Alkaline]]<br />(zinc–manganese dioxide) || Zn || MnO<sub>2</sub> || 1.5 || 1.15 || 0.4-0.59 || Moderate energy density.<br />Good for high- and low-drain uses. || 30
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[Nickel oxyhydroxide battery|Nickel oxyhydroxide]]<br />(zinc–manganese dioxide/nickel oxyhydroxide) || || || 1.7 || || || Moderate energy density. <br /> Good for high drain uses. ||
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[Lithium battery|Lithium]]<br />(lithium–copper oxide)<br />Li–CuO || || || 1.7 || || || No longer manufactured.<br />Replaced by silver oxide ([[International Electrotechnical Commission|IEC]]-type "SR") batteries. ||
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| |-
| |
| | [[Lithium battery|Lithium]]<br />(lithium–iron disulfide)<br />LiFeS<sub>2</sub> || || || 1.5 || || || Expensive.<br />Used in 'plus' or 'extra' batteries. ||
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| |-
| |
| | [[Lithium battery|Lithium]]<br />(lithium–manganese dioxide)<br />LiMnO<sub>2</sub> || || || 3.0 || || 0.83-1.01 || Expensive.<br />Used only in high-drain devices or for long shelf-life due to very low rate of self-discharge.<br />'Lithium' alone usually refers to this type of chemistry. ||
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| |-
| |
| | [[Lithium battery|Lithium]]<br />(lithium–carbon fluoride)<br />Li–(CF)<sub>n</sub> || Li || (CF)<sub>n</sub> || 3.6 || 3.0 || || || 120
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[Lithium battery|Lithium]]<br />(lithium–chromium oxide)<br />Li–CrO<sub>2</sub> || Li || CrO<sub>2 || 3.8 || 3.0 || || || 108
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[Mercury battery|Mercury oxide]] || Zn || HgO || 1.34 || 1.2 || || High-drain and constant voltage.<br />Banned in most countries because of health concerns. || 36
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| |-
| |
| | [[Zinc–air battery|Zinc–air]] || Zn || O<sub>2</sub> || 1.6 || 1.1 || 1.59<ref>Excludes the mass of the air oxidizer.</ref> || Used mostly in hearing aids. ||
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| |-
| |
| | [[Silver-oxide battery|Silver-oxide]] (silver–zinc) || Zn || AgO || 1.85 || 1.5 || 0.47 || Very expensive.<br />Used only commercially in 'button' cells. || 30
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| |-
| |
| | [[Magnesium]] || Mg || MnO<sub>2</sub> || 2.0 || 1.5 || || || 40
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| === Secondary (rechargeable) batteries and their characteristics ===
| |
| {| class="wikitable sortable"
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Chemistry !! Cell<br />Voltage !! [[Specific energy]]<br />[MJ/kg] !! Comments
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[Nickel–cadmium battery|NiCd]] || 1.2 || 0.14 || Inexpensive. <br /> High-/low-drain, moderate energy density. <br /> Can withstand very high discharge rates with virtually no loss of capacity. <br /> Moderate rate of self-discharge. <br /> Environmental hazard due to Cadmium – use now virtually prohibited in Europe.
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| |-
| |
| | [[Lead–acid battery|Lead–acid]] || 2.1 || 0.14 || Moderately expensive. <br /> Moderate energy density. <br /> Moderate rate of self-discharge. <br /> Higher discharge rates result in considerable loss of capacity. <br /> Environmental hazard due to Lead. <br /> Common use – Automobile batteries
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| |-
| |
| | [[Nickel–metal hydride battery|NiMH]] || 1.2 || 0.36 || Inexpensive. <br /> Performs better than alkaline batteries in higher drain devices. <br /> Traditional chemistry has high energy density, but also a high rate of self-discharge. <br /> Newer chemistry has [[Low self-discharge NiMH battery|low self-discharge rate]], but also a ~25% lower energy density. <br />Used in some cars.
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| |-
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| | [[Nickel–zinc battery|NiZn]] || 1.6 || 0.36 || Moderately inexpensive. <br /> High drain device suitable. <br /> Low self-discharge rate. <br /> Voltage closer to alkaline primary cells than other secondary cells. <br /> No toxic components. <br /> Newly introduced to the market (2009). Has not yet established a track record. <br /> Limited size availability.
| |
| |-
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| | [[Silver-zinc battery|AgZn]] || 1.86 <br /> 1.5 || 0.46 || Smaller volume than equivalent Li-ion. <br /> Extremely expensive due to silver. <br /> Very high energy density. <br /> Very high drain capable. <br /> For many years considered obsolete due to high silver prices. <br /> Cell suffers from oxidation if unused. <br /> Reactions are not fully understood. <br /> Terminal voltage very stable but suddenly drops to 1.5 volts at 70-80% charge (believed to be <br /> due to presence of both argentous and argentic oxide in positive plate – one is consumed first). <br /> Has been used in lieu of primary battery (moon buggy). <br /> Is being developed once again as a replacement for Li-ion.
| |
| |-
| |
| | [[Lithium-ion battery|Lithium ion]] || 3.6 || 0.46 || Very expensive. <br /> Very high energy density. <br /> Not usually available in "common" battery sizes. <br /> Very common in laptop computers, moderate to high-end digital cameras, camcorders, and cellphones. <br /> Very low rate of self-discharge. <br /> Terminal voltage unstable (varies from 4.2 to 3.0 volts during discharge). <br /> Volatile: Chance of explosion if short-circuited, allowed to overheat, or not manufactured with rigorous quality standards.
| |
| |}
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| | |
| == Homemade cells ==
| |
| Almost any liquid or moist object that has enough ions to be electrically conductive can serve as the electrolyte for a cell. As a novelty or science demonstration, it is possible to insert two electrodes made of different metals into a [[lemon battery|lemon]],<ref>[http://ushistory.org/franklin/fun/lemon.htm ushistory.org: The Lemon Battery]. Accessed 10 April 2007.</ref> [[potato]],<ref>[http://pbskids.org/zoom/activities/phenom/potatobattery.html ZOOM activities: phenom Potato Battery]. Accessed 10 April 2007.</ref> etc. and generate small amounts of electricity. "Two-potato clocks" are also widely available in hobby and toy stores; they consist of a pair of cells, each consisting of a potato (lemon, et cetera) with two electrodes inserted into it, wired in series to form a battery with enough voltage to power a digital clock.<ref>[http://www.sciencekit.com/category.asp_Q_c_E_756000&cr=1220 Two-Potato Clock – Science Kit and Boreal Laboratories]. Accessed 10 April 2007.</ref> Homemade cells of this kind are of no practical use.
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| A voltaic pile can be made from two coins (such as a [[nickel]] and a [[penny]]) and a piece of [[paper towel]] dipped in [[saline water|salt water]]. Such a pile generates a very low voltage but, when many are stacked in [[series circuit|series]], they can replace normal batteries for a short time.<ref>[http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/battery1.htm Howstuffworks "Battery Experiments: Voltaic Pile"]. Accessed 10 April 2007.</ref>
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| Sony has developed a [[biological battery]] that generates electricity from sugar in a way that is similar to the processes observed in living organisms. The battery generates electricity through the use of enzymes that break down carbohydrates.<ref>[http://informationweek.com/news/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=201802311 Sony Develops A Bio Battery Powered By Sugar]. Accessed 24 August 2007.</ref>
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| Lead acid cells can easily be manufactured at home, but a tedious charge/discharge cycle is needed to 'form' the plates. This is a process in which lead sulfate forms on the plates, and during charge is converted to lead dioxide (positive plate) and pure lead (negative plate). Repeating this process results in a microscopically rough surface, increasing the surface area. This increases the current the cell can deliver. For an example, see.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://windpower.org.za/batteries/batteries.html |title=Home made lead acid batteries |publisher=Windpower.org.za |date=2007-09-16 |accessdate=2013-07-26}}</ref>
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| | |
| [[Daniell cell]]s are easy to make at home. [[Aluminium–air batteries]] can be produced with high-purity aluminium. [[Aluminium foil]] batteries will produce some electricity, but are not efficient, in part because a significant amount of (combustible) [[hydrogen]] gas is produced.
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| == See also ==
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| {{Portal|Energy|Electronics}}
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| {{Div col}}
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| * [[Battery electric vehicle]]
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| * [[Battery (vacuum tube)]]
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| * [[Battery holder]]
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| * [[Battery isolator]]
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| * [[Battery management system]]
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| * [[Battery nomenclature]]
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| * [[Battery pack]]
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| * [[Comparison of battery types]]
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| * [[Depth of discharge]]
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| * [[Electricity]]
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| * [[Nanowire battery]]
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| * [[State of charge]]
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| * [[State of health]]
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| * [[Trickle charging]]
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| {{Div col end}}
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| | |
| == References ==
| |
| {{Reflist|30em}}
| |
| | |
| == Further reading ==
| |
| * {{cite book|last=Dingrando|first=Laurel|coauthors=et al.|title=Chemistry: Matter and Change|year=2007|publisher=Glencoe/McGraw-Hill|location=New York|isbn=978-0-07-877237-5}} Ch. 21 (pp. 662–695) is on electrochemistry.
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| * {{cite book|last=Fink|first=Donald G.|authorlink=Donald G. Fink | coauthors=H. Wayne Beaty| title=Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers, Eleventh Edition|year=1978| publisher=McGraw-Hill|location=New York|isbn=0-07-020974-X}}
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| * {{cite book|last=Knight|first=Randall D.|title=Physics for Scientists and Engineers: A Strategic Approach|year=2004|publisher=Pearson Education|location=San Francisco|isbn=0-8053-8960-1}} Chs. 28-31 (pp. 879–995) contain information on electric potential.
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| * {{cite book|last=Linden|first=David|coauthors=Thomas B. Reddy|title=Handbook Of Batteries|year=2001|publisher=McGraw-Hill|location=New York|isbn=0-07-135978-8}}
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| * {{cite book|last=Saslow|first=Wayne M.|title=Electricity, Magnetism, and Light|year=2002|publisher=Thomson Learning|location=Toronto|isbn=0-12-619455-6}} Chs. 8-9 (pp. 336–418) have more information on batteries.
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| == External links ==
| |
| {{Commons|Battery}}
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| * {{dmoz|Business/Electronics_and_Electrical/Power_Supplies/Batteries/|Batteries}}
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| * [http://electrochem.cwru.edu/encycl/art-b02-batt-nonr.htm Non-rechargeable batteries]
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| * [http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/battery.htm HowStuffWorks: How batteries work]
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| * [http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/batteries/index.php DoITPoMS Teaching and Learning Package- "Batteries"]
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| * {{cite web|author=The Physics arXiv Blog August 21, 2013 |url=http://www.technologyreview.com/view/518446/first-atomic-level-simulation-of-a-whole-battery |title=First Atomic Level Simulation of a Whole Battery | MIT Technology Review |publisher=Technologyreview.com |date=2013-08-17 |accessdate=2013-08-21}}
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| {{Battery sizes}}
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| {{Galvanic cells}}
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| [[Category:Battery (electricity)| ]]
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| [[Category:Italian inventions]]
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| [[hi:बैटरी]]
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| [[si:විදුලි කෝෂය (විද්යුතය)]]
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