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| [[File:Capacitor.jpg|thumb|right|300px|One of two 10,000 [[microfarad]] capacitor in a [[TRM-800]] amplifier used for energy storage]]
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| [[File:Flash.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Large capacitor for [[camera flash]] in a vintage [[Instant camera|Polaroid]]]]
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| '''[[Capacitor]]s''' have many uses in electronic and electrical systems. They are so ubiquitous that it is rare that an electrical product does not include at least one for some purpose.
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| == Energy storage ==
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| A capacitor can store electric energy when it is connected to its charging circuit. And when it is disconnected from its charging circuit, it can dissipate that stored energy, so it can be used like a temporary [[Battery (electricity)|battery]]. Capacitors are commonly used in electronic devices to maintain power supply while batteries are being changed. (This prevents loss of information in volatile memory.)
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| Conventional electrostatic capacitors provide less than 360 [[joule]]s per kilogram of energy density, while capacitors using developing technology can provide more than 2.52 [[Kilo-|kilo]][[joule]]s per kilogram.<ref>[http://cleantech.com/news/4278/next-gen-car-solution-capacitor Next-gen car solution? Scientists expand uses for electrostatic capacitor]</ref>
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| In [[car audio]] systems, large capacitors store energy for the [[amplifier]] to use on demand.
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| [[File:Vintage paper capacitor tube radio.jpg|thumb|right|Vintage paper in wax capacitor often found in antique tube radio circuits.]]
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| An [[uninterruptible power supply]] (UPS) can be equipped with maintenance-free capacitors to extend [[service life]].<ref>[http://www.industrial-europe.com/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=210602105&cid=NL_industrialeu industrial-europe.com]</ref>
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| == Pulsed power and weapons ==
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| Groups of large, specially constructed, low-[[inductance]] high-voltage capacitors (''capacitor banks'') are used to supply huge pulses of current for many [[pulsed power]] applications. These include [[electromagnetic forming]], [[Marx generator]]s, pulsed [[laser]]s (especially [[TEA laser]]s), [[pulse forming network]]s, [[Z machine|fusion research]], and [[particle accelerator]]s.
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| Large capacitor banks (reservoirs) are used as energy sources for the [[exploding-bridgewire detonator]]s or [[slapper detonator]]s in [[nuclear weapon]]s and other specialty weapons. Experimental work is under way using banks of capacitors as power sources for [[Electromagnetism|electromagnetic]] [[Vehicle armour|armour]] and electromagnetic [[railgun]]s or [[coilgun]]s.
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| == Power conditioning ==
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| [[Reservoir capacitor]]s are used in [[Power supply|power supplies]] where they smooth the output of a full or half wave [[rectifier]]. They can also be used in [[charge pump]] circuits as the energy storage element in the generation of higher voltages than the input voltage.
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| Capacitors are connected in parallel with the power circuits of most electronic devices and larger systems (such as factories) to shunt away and conceal current fluctuations from the primary power source to provide a "clean" power supply for signal or control circuits. Audio equipment, for example, uses several capacitors in this way, to shunt away power line hum before it gets into the signal circuitry. The capacitors act as a local reserve for the DC power source, and bypass AC currents from the power supply. This is used in [[car audio]] applications, when a stiffening capacitor compensates for the inductance and resistance of the leads to the [[Lead-acid batteries|lead-acid]] [[car battery]].
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| === Power factor correction ===
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| In electric power distribution, capacitors are used for [[power factor correction]]. Such capacitors often come as three capacitors connected as a [[three phase]] [[Electrical load|load]]. Usually, the values of these capacitors are given not in farads but rather as a [[reactive power]] in volt-amperes reactive (VAr). The purpose is to counteract inductive loading from devices like [[Induction motor|electric motors]] and [[transmission line]]s to make the load appear to be mostly resistive. Individual motor or lamp loads may have capacitors for power factor correction, or larger sets of capacitors (usually with automatic switching devices) may be installed at a load center within a building or in a large utility [[electrical substation|substation]].
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| == Suppression and coupling ==
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| === Signal coupling ===
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| {{main|Capacitive coupling}}
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| Because capacitors pass AC but block DC [[Signal (information theory)|signals]] (when charged up to the applied DC voltage), they are often used to separate the AC and DC components of a signal. This method is known as ''AC coupling'' or "capacitive coupling". Here, a large value of capacitance, whose value need not be accurately controlled, but whose [[Reactance (electronics)|reactance]] is small at the signal frequency, is employed.
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| === Decoupling ===
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| {{main|decoupling capacitor}}
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| A decoupling capacitor is a capacitor used to decouple one part of a circuit from another. Noise caused by other circuit elements is shunted through the capacitor, reducing the effect they have on the rest of the circuit. It is most commonly used between the power supply and ground.
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| An alternative name is ''bypass capacitor'' as it is used to bypass the power supply or other high impedance component of a circuit.
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| ===Noise filters and snubbers===
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| When an inductive circuit is opened, the current through the inductance collapses quickly, creating a large voltage across the open circuit of the switch or relay. If the inductance is large enough, the energy will generate an [[electric spark]], causing the contact points to oxidize, deteriorate, or sometimes weld together, or destroying a solid-state switch. A [[snubber]] capacitor across the newly opened circuit creates a path for this impulse to bypass the contact points, thereby preserving their life; these were commonly found in [[contact breaker]] [[ignition system]]s, for instance. Similarly, in smaller scale circuits, the spark may not be enough to damage the switch but will still [[Spark-gap transmitter|radiate]] undesirable [[radio frequency interference]] (RFI), which a '''filter''' capacitor absorbs. Snubber capacitors are usually employed with a low-value resistor in series, to dissipate energy and minimize RFI. Such resistor-capacitor combinations are available in a single package.
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| Capacitors are also used in parallel to interrupt units of a high-voltage [[circuit breaker]] in order to equally distribute the voltage between these units. In this case they are called grading capacitors.
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| In schematic diagrams, a capacitor used primarily for DC charge storage is often drawn vertically in circuit diagrams with the lower, more negative, plate drawn as an arc. The straight plate indicates the positive terminal of the device, if it is polarized (see [[electrolytic capacitor]]).
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| ==Motor starters ==
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| {{main|motor capacitor}}
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| In single phase [[Squirrel-cage rotor|squirrel cage]] motors, the primary winding within the motor housing is not capable of starting a rotational motion on the rotor, but is capable of sustaining one. To start the motor, a secondary winding is used in series with a non-polarized ''[[starting capacitor]]'' to introduce a lag in the sinusoidal current through the starting winding. When the secondary winding is placed at an angle with respect to the primary winding, a rotating electric field is created. The force of the rotational field is not constant, but is sufficient to start the rotor spinning. When the rotor comes close to operating speed, a centrifugal switch (or current-sensitive relay in series with the main winding) disconnects the capacitor. The start capacitor is typically mounted to the side of the motor housing. These are called capacitor-start motors, and have relatively high starting torque.
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| There are also capacitor-run induction motors which have a permanently connected phase-shifting capacitor in series with a second winding. The motor is much like a two-phase induction motor.
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| Motor-starting capacitors are typically non-polarized electrolytic types, while running capacitors are conventional paper or plastic film [[dielectric]] types.
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| == Signal processing ==
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| The energy stored in a capacitor can be used to represent [[information]], either in binary form, as in [[DRAM]]s, or in analogue form, as in [[analog sampled filter]]s and [[Charge-coupled device|CCD]]s. Capacitors can be used in [[analog circuit]]s as components of integrators or more complex filters and in [[negative feedback]] loop stabilization. Signal processing circuits also use capacitors to [[integral|integrate]] a current signal.
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| ===Tuned circuits===
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| Capacitors and [[inductor]]s are applied together in [[RLC circuit|tuned circuits]] to select information in particular frequency bands. For example, [[radio receiver]]s rely on variable capacitors to tune the station frequency. Speakers use passive analog [[Audio crossover|crossovers]], and analog equalizers use capacitors to select different audio bands.
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| The [[resonant frequency]] '''''f''''' of a tuned circuit is a function of the inductance (L) and capacitance (C) in series, and is given by:
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| :<math>f = \frac{1}{2 \pi \sqrt{LC}}.</math>
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| where L is in [[henry (unit)|henries]] and C is in farads.
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| == Sensing ==
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| Most capacitors are designed to maintain a fixed physical structure. However, various factors can change the structure of the capacitor; the resulting change in capacitance can be used to [[Sensor|sense]] those factors.
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| ===Changing the dielectric===
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| The effects of varying the characteristics of the dielectric can also be used for sensing and measurement. Capacitors with an exposed and porous dielectric can be used to measure humidity in air. Capacitors are used to accurately measure the fuel level in [[airplane]]s; as the fuel covers more of a pair of plates, the circuit capacitance increases.
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| ===Changing the distance between the plates===
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| A capacitor with a flexible plate can be used to measure strain or pressure or [[Load cell|weight]].
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| Industrial pressure transmitters used for [[process control]] use pressure-sensing diagphragms, which form a capacitor plate of an oscillator circuit. Capacitors are used as the [[sensor]] in [[condenser microphone]]s, where one plate is moved by air pressure, relative to the fixed position of the other plate. Some [[accelerometer]]s use [[microelectromechanical systems]] (MEMS) capacitors etched on a chip to measure the magnitude and direction of the acceleration vector. They are used to detect changes in acceleration, e.g. as tilt sensors or to detect free fall, as sensors triggering [[airbag]] deployment, and in many other applications. Some [[Fingerprint authentication#Fingerprint sensors|fingerprint sensors]] use capacitors.
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| Additionally, a user can adjust the pitch of a [[theremin]] musical instrument by moving his hand since this changes the effective capacitance between the user's hand and the antenna.
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| ===Changing the effective area of the plates===
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| Capacitive touch switches are now used on many consumer electronic products.
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| ==Hazards and safety==
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| Capacitors may retain a charge long after power is removed from a circuit; this charge can cause dangerous or even potentially fatal shocks or damage connected equipment. For example, even a seemingly innocuous device such as a disposable camera flash unit powered by a 1.5 volt AA battery contains a capacitor which may be charged to over 300 volts. This is easily capable of delivering a shock. Service procedures for electronic devices usually include instructions to discharge large or high-voltage capacitors. Capacitors may also have built-in discharge resistors to dissipate stored energy to a safe level within a few seconds after power is removed. High-voltage capacitors are stored with the terminals shorted, as protection from potentially dangerous voltages due to dielectric absorption.
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| Some old, large oil-filled capacitors contain [[polychlorinated biphenyl]]s (PCBs). It is known that waste PCBs can leak into groundwater under landfills. Capacitors containing PCB were labelled as containing "Askarel" and several other trade names. PCB-filled capacitors are found in very old (pre 1975) fluorescent lamp ballasts, and other applications.
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| High-voltage capacitors may catastrophically fail when subjected to voltages or currents beyond their rating, or as they reach their normal end of life. Dielectric or metal interconnection failures may create arcing that vaporizes dielectric fluid, resulting in case bulging, rupture, or even an explosion. Capacitors used in RF or sustained high-current applications can overheat, especially in the center of the capacitor rolls. Capacitors used within high-energy capacitor banks can violently explode when a short in one capacitor causes sudden dumping of energy stored in the rest of the bank into the failing unit. High voltage vacuum capacitors can generate soft X-rays even during normal operation. Proper containment, fusing, and preventive maintenance can help to minimize these hazards.
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| High-voltage capacitors can benefit from a pre-charge to limit in-rush currents at power-up of high voltage direct current (HVDC) circuits. This will extend the life of the component and may mitigate high-voltage hazards.
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| ==References==
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| <references/>
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| {{DEFAULTSORT:Applications Of Capacitors}}
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| [[Category:Capacitors]]
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