Isotypic component

The wafer bond characterization is based on different methods and tests. Considered a high importance of the wafer are the successful bonded wafers without flaws. Those flaws can be caused by void formation in the interface due to unevenness or impurities. The bond connection is characterized for wafer bond development or quality assessment of fabricated wafers and sensors.

Overview

Wafer bonds are commonly characterized by three important encapsulation parameters: bond strength, hermeticity of encapsulation and bonding induced stress.

The bond strength can be evaluated using double cantilever beam or chevron respectively micro-chevron tests. Other pull tests as well as burst, shear or bend tests enable the determination of the bond strength. The packaging hermeticity is characterized using membrane, He-leak, resonator/pressure tests.

Three additional possibilities to evaluate the bond connection are optical, electron and acoustic measurements. At first, optical measurement techniques are optical microscopy, IR transmission microscopy and visual inspection. Secondly, the electron measurement is commonly applied using electron microscopy, e.g. scanning electron microscopy (SEM), high voltage transmittance electron microscopy (HVTEM) and high resolution scanning electron microscopy (HRSEM). And finally, typical acoustic measurement approaches are scanning acoustic microscope (SAM), scanning laser acoustic microscope (SLAM) and C-mode scanning acoustic microscope (C-SAM).

The specimen preparation is sophisticated and the mechanical, electronic properties are important for the bonding technology characterization and comparison.

Infrared (IR) transmission microscopy

Infrared (IR) void imaging is possible if the analyzed materials are IR transparent, i.e. silicon. This method gives a rapid qualitative examination and is very suitable due to its sensitivity to the surface and to the buried interface. It obtains information on chemical nature of surface and interface.

Schematic infrared transmission microscopy setup.

Infrared transmitted light is based on the fact that silicon is translucent at wavelength ≥ 1.2 µm. The equipment consists of an infrared lamp as light source and an infrared video system (compare to figure "Schematic infrared transmission microscopy setup").

The IR imaging system enables the analysis of the bond wave and additionally micro mechanical structures as well as deformities in the silicon. This procedure allows also to analyze multiple layer bonds. The image contrast depends on the distance between the wafers. Usually if using monochromatic IR the center of the wafers is display brighter based on the vicinity. Particles in the bond interface generate highly visible spots with differing contrast because of the interference fringes. Unbonded areas can be shown if the void opening (height) is ≥ 1 nm.

Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy

The Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy is a non-destructive hermeticity characterization method. The radiation absorption enables the analysis with a specific wavelength for gases. Benefits of Residing in a Apartment or Landed property in Singapore Property New Launches & Project Showcase In Singapore Many residential Singapore property sales involve buying property in Singapore at new launches. These are often homes underneath building, being sold new by developers. New Launch Singapore Property, 28 Imperial Residences Coming To Geylang Lorong 26 The property market is slowing down, based on personal property transactions in May Cell Apps FREE Sign Up Log in Property Brokers Feedback

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Ultrasonic microscopy

Ultrasonic microscopy uses high frequency sound waves to image bonded interfaces. Deionized water is used as the acoustic interconnect medium between the acoustic transducer and the wafer.

This method works with an ultrasonic transducer scanning the wafer bond. The reflected sound signal is used for the image creation. The lateral resolutions depends on the ultrasonic frequency, the acoustic beam diameter and the signal-to-noise ratio (contrast).

Unbonded areas, i.e. impurities or voids, do not reflect the ultrasonic beam like bonded areas, therefore a quality assessment of the bond is possible.

Double cantilever beam (DCB) test

Double cantilever beam test, also referred to as crack opening or razor blade method, is a method to define the strength of the bond. This is achieved by determine the energy of the bonded surfaces. A blade of a specific thickness is inserted between the bonded wafer pair. This leads to a split-up of the bond connection. The crack length $L$ equals the distance between the blade tip and the crack tip and is determined using IR transmitted light. The IR light is able to illuminate the crack, when using materials transparent to IR or visible light. Is the fracture surface toughness very high, it is very difficult to insert the blade and the wafers are endangered to break at the slide in of the blade.

Blade insertion between the bonded wafers.

The DCB test characterizes the time dependent strength by mechanical fracture evaluation and is therefore well suited for lifetime predictions. A disadvantage of this method is, that between the entering of the blade and the time to take the IR image, the results can be influenced. In addition, the measurement inaccuracy increases with a high surface fracture toughness resulting in a smaller crack length or broken wafers at the blade insertion as well as the influence of the fourth power of the measured crack length. The measured crack length determines surface energy $\gamma$ in relation to a rectangular, beam-shaped specimen.

$\gamma ={\frac {3t_{b}^{2}E_{1}t_{w1}^{3}E_{2}t_{w2}^{3}}{16L^{4}(E_{1}t_{w1}^{3}+E_{2}t_{w2}^{3})}}$

Thereby is $E$ the Young's modulus, $t_{w}$ the wafer thickness, $t_{b}$ the blade thickness and $L$ the measured crack length. In literature different DCB models are mentioned, i.e. measurement approaches by Maszara, Gillis and Gilman, Srawley and Gross, Kanninen or Williams. The most commonly used approaches are by Maszara or Gillis and Gilman.

Maszara model

The Maszara model neglects shear stress as well as stress in the un-cleaved part for the obtained crack lengths. The compliance of a symmetric DCB specimen is described as follows:

$C={\frac {8L^{3}}{E^{*}wt^{3}}}$

The compliance is determined out of the crack length $L$, the width $w$ and the beam thickness $t$. $E^{*}$ defines the Young's modulus. The surface fracture energy $G_{IC}$ is:

$G_{IC}={\frac {3E^{*}\delta ^{2}t^{3}}{16L^{4}}}$

with $\delta$ as load-point displacement.

Gillis and Gilman model

The Gillis and Gilman approach considers bend and shear forces in the beam. The compliance equation is:

$C={\frac {8L^{3}}{E^{*}wt^{3}}}\left(1+3c\left({\frac {t}{L}}\right)^{2-n}+{\frac {\alpha _{s}E^{*}}{4\mu }}\left({\frac {t}{L}}\right)^{2}\right)$

The first term ${\frac {8L^{3}}{E^{*}wt^{3}}}$ describes the strain energy in the cantilever due to bending. The second term is the contribution from elastic deformations in the un-cleaved specimen part and the third term considers the shear deformation. Therefore $n$ and $c$ are dependent on the conditions of the fixed end of the cantilever. The shear coefficient $\alpha _{S}$ is dependent on the cross-section geometry of the beam.

Chevron test

The chevron test is used to determine the fracture toughness $K_{IC}$ of brittle construction materials. The fracture toughness is a basic material parameter for analyzing the bond strength.

The chevron test uses a special notch geometry for the specimen that is loaded with an increasing tensile force. The chevron notch geometry is commonly in shape of a triangle with different bond patterns. At a specific tensile load the crack starts at the chevron tip and grows with continuous applied load until a critical length is reached. The crack growth becomes unstable and accelerates resulting in a fracture of the specimen. The critical length depends only on the specimen geometry and the loading condition. The fracture toughness commonly $K_{IC}$ is determined by measuring the recorded fracture load of the test. This improves the test quality and accuracy and decreases measurement scatter.

Two approaches, based on energy release rate $G_{I}$ or stress intensity factor $K_{I}$, can be used for explaining the chevron test method. The fracture occurs when $K_{I}$ or $G_{I}$ reach a critical value, describing the fracture toughness $K_{IC}$ or $G_{IC}$. The advantage using chevron notch specimen is due to the formation of a specified crack of well-defined length. The disadvantage of the approach is that the gluing required for loading is time consuming and may induce data scatter due to misalignment. Template:Multiple images Benefits of Residing in a Apartment or Landed property in Singapore Property New Launches & Project Showcase In Singapore Many residential Singapore property sales involve buying property in Singapore at new launches. These are often homes underneath building, being sold new by developers. New Launch Singapore Property, 28 Imperial Residences Coming To Geylang Lorong 26 The property market is slowing down, based on personal property transactions in May Cell Apps FREE Sign Up Log in Property Brokers Feedback

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Micro chevron (MC) test

The micro chevron (MC) test is a modification of the chevron test using a specimen of defined and reproducible size and shape. The test allows the determination of the critical energy release rate $G_{IC}$ and the critical fracture toughness $K_{IC}$. It is commonly used to characterize the wafer bond strength as well as the reliability. The reliability characterization is determined based on the fracture mechanical evaluation of critical failure. The evaluation is determined by analyzing the fracture toughness as well as the resistance against crack propagation.

The fracture toughness allows comparison of the strength properties independent on the particular specimen geometry. In addition, bond strength of the bonded interface can be determined. The chevron specimen is designed out of bonded stripes in shape of a triangle. The space of the tip of the chevron structure triangle is used as lever arm for the applied force. This reduces the force required to initiate the crack. The dimensions of the micro chevron structures are in the range of several millimeters and usually an angle of 70 ° chevron notch. This chevron pattern is fabricated using wet or reactive ion etching.

The MC test is applied with special specimen stamp glued onto the non-bonded edge of the processed structures. The specimen is loaded in a tensile tester and the load is applied perpendicular to the bonded area. When the load equals the maximum bearable conditions, a crack is initiated at the tip of the chevron notch.´

By increasing the mechanical stress by means of a higher loading, two opposing effects can be observed. First, the resistance against the crack expansion increases based on the increasing bonding of the triangular shaped first half of the chevron pattern. Second, the lever arm is getting longer with increased crack length $a$. From the critical crack length $a_{c}$ an instable crack expansion and the destruction of the specimen is initiated. The critical crack length $a_{c}$ corresponds to the maximum force $F_{max}$ in a force-length-diagram and a minimum of the geometric function $Y_{MIN}$.

The fracture toughness $K_{IC}$ can be calculated with maximum force, width $w$ and thickness $t$:

$K_{IC}={\frac {F_{MAX}}{t\cdot {\sqrt {w}}}}\cdot Y_{MIN}$

The maximum force $F_{MAX}$ is determined during the test and the minimal stress intensity coefficient $Y_{MIN}$ is determined by FE Simulation. In addition, the energy release rate $G_{IC}$ can be determined with $E$ as modulus of elasticity and $v$ as Poisson's ratio in the following way.´

$G_{IC}={\frac {K_{IC}^{2}}{E}}\cdot (1-v^{2})$

The advantage of this test is the high accuracy compared to other tensile or bend tests. It is an effective, reliable and precise approach for the development of wafer bonds as well as for the quality control of the micro mechanical device production.

Shear test

Shear testing is a method to determine the average strength and local stress the bonding layer can withstand. It is used to determine the integrity of materials and procedures and evaluate the overall performance of the bonding frame and to compare various bonding technologies with each other. It is based on measuring the applied force, the failure type due to the applied force and the visual appearance of the residual medium used. The contact tool is required to apply uniform force over the whole contact area. The top tool applies a force on the test medium that is sufficient to shear the specimen. The applied force used equals the maximum shear strength the connection can withstand.

A test device as shown in the image is commonly used to determine the shear strength. Two skids are pressed together. The top tool provides the applied force. The bottom tool holds the specimen and is mounted on a movable skid to ensure that only shear forces effect the specimen. Template:Multiple images Benefits of Residing in a Apartment or Landed property in Singapore Property New Launches & Project Showcase In Singapore Many residential Singapore property sales involve buying property in Singapore at new launches. These are often homes underneath building, being sold new by developers. New Launch Singapore Property, 28 Imperial Residences Coming To Geylang Lorong 26 The property market is slowing down, based on personal property transactions in May Cell Apps FREE Sign Up Log in Property Brokers Feedback

Individuals all wish to be seen having the identical foresight as the experts in property investment or the massive names in their own fields. Thus the discharge of these tales works to encourage different buyers to observe suit. Bartley Ridge is the most popular new launch in district 13. Irresistible pricing from $1,1xx psf. Bartley Ridge is a ninety nine-12 months leasehold new condominium at Mount Vernon road, good next to Bartley MRT station (CC12). If you want to get more Rehda Johor chairman Koh Moo Hing said potential property consumers in the two areas Http://Modern.Dowatch.Net/Profile/Mic31K/Created/Topics are now adopting a wait-and-see attitude. How can I get the ebrochure and flooring plans of the new launch projects ? The Existing Mortgage on your HDB District 13, Freehold condominium District 11, Freehold Cluster landed house Sea Horizon EC @ Pasir Ris

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Oceanfront Suites, irresistible pricing for a 946 leasehold property with magnificent sea view. Dreaming of basking and feeling the warmth of pure sunlight is now just a click on away. Oceanfront Suites - Seaside residing no longer needs to remain an unattainable This Cambodia new launch, a mega development has also 762 residential models. Additionally located within this Oxley abroad property is a mega shopping center with 627 outlets and also up to 963 available workplace spaces and is surrounded by quite a few Embassy, resorts, Casinos and many vacationer relax space. Belysa EC @ Pasir Ris Esparina EC @ Sengkang Dell Launches World's first Gender-GEDI Female Entrepreneurship Index on 06/04/thirteen by Istanbul, Turkey. Paris Ris EC @ Paris Ris in search of indication of curiosity.

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White Light Interferometers

White light interferometry is commonly used for detecting deformations of the wafer surface based on optical measurements. Low-coherence light from a white light source passes through the optical top wafer, e.g. glass wafer, to the bond interface. Usually there are three different white light interferometers:

• diffraction grating interferometers
• vertical scanning or coherence probe interferometers
• white light scatter plate interferometers

For the white light interferometer the position of zero order interference fringe and the spacing of the interference fringes needs to be independent of wavelength. White light interferometry is utilized to detect deformations of the wafer. Low coherence light from a white light source passes through the top wafer to the sensor. The white light is generated by a halogen lamp and modulated. The spectrum of the reflected light of the sensor cavity is detected by a spectrometer. The captured spectrum is used to obtain the cavity length of the sensor. The cavity length Buying, selling and renting HDB and personal residential properties in Singapore are simple and transparent transactions. Although you are not required to engage a real property salesperson (generally often known as a "public listed property developers In singapore agent") to complete these property transactions, chances are you'll think about partaking one if you are not accustomed to the processes concerned.

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$d={\frac {\lambda _{1}\lambda _{2}}{2n(\lambda _{2}-\lambda _{1})}}$

with $n$ as refractive index of the sensor cavity material, $\lambda _{1}$ and $\lambda _{2}$ as adjacent peaks in the reflection spectrum.

The advantage of using white light interferometry as characterization method is the influence reduction of the bending loss.

See also

• Wafer bonding
• Direct bonding
• Plasma activated bonding
• Anodic bonding
• Eutectic bonding
• Glass frit bonding
• Adhesive bonding
• Thermocompression bonding
• Reactive bonding