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| {{multiple issues|original research = August 2012|refimprove = August 2012}}
| | Are you usually having problems with a PC? Are we constantly looking for ways to increase PC performance? Then this really is the article you're shopping for. Here we will discuss a few of the most asked issues when it comes to having you PC serve we well; how could I create my computer faster for free? How to make my computer run faster?<br><br>Registry is not additionally important to quick computer boot up, and crucial to the total performance of the computer. If you have a registry error, we will face blue screen, freezing or crash. It's essential to frequently clean up the invalid, missing, junk registry keys to keep the computer healthy and running swiftly.<br><br>So, this advanced dual scan is not merely 1 of the better, but it really is furthermore freeware. And as of all of this which many regard CCleaner among the greater registry cleaners in the market today. I would add which I personally prefer Regcure for the easy reason that it has a greater interface and I know for a fact that it is ad-ware without charge.<br><br>Your computer was especially quickly when we initially bought it. Because the registry was very clean and free of errors. After time, a computer begins to run slow plus freezes up now plus then. Because there are mistakes accumulating inside it plus some info is rewritten or completely deleted by your incorrect uninstall of programs, improper operations, malware or different things. That is the reason why a computer performance decreases gradually and become surprisingly unstable.<br><br>Many [http://bestregistrycleanerfix.com/registry-reviver registry reviver] s enable you to download their product for free, to scan the computer yourself. That way we can see how several mistakes it finds, where it finds them, plus how it will fix them. A perfect registry cleaner can remove a registry problems, and optimize plus speed up the PC, with little effort on your piece.<br><br>The software finds these difficulties and takes care of them inside the shortest time possible. Your difficult drive may also cause difficulties at times, incredibly should you have 1 that is almost maxed. When your start a machine, the are a lot of booting processes included and having an almost full storage refuses to aid a bit. You will constantly have a slow PC because there are a lot of points in the difficult disk being processed at the same time. The best method to solve this issue is to upgrade. This allows the PC certain time to breath and working faster instantaneously.<br><br>We require an option to automatically delete unwanted registry keys. This usually help save you hours of laborious checking by a registry keys. Automatic deletion is a key element whenever we compare registry cleaners.<br><br>What I would recommend is to search on your for registry products. You are able to do this with a Google look. When you find treatments, look for critiques and testimonials regarding the product. Then you are able to see how others like the product, and how effectively it functions. |
| '''Motivation''' is a [[psychology|psychological]] feature that induces an organism to act towards a desired [[goal]] and elicits, controls, and sustains certain goal-directed behaviors. It can be considered a driving force; a psychological one that compels or reinforces an action toward a desired goal. For example, [[hunger]] is a motivation that elicits a desire to eat. Motivation is the purpose or psychological cause of an action.<ref name="Schater2011">{{cite book|last=Schacter|first=Daniel|title=PSYCHOLOGY|year=2011|publisher=Catherine Woods|location=United States of America|isbn=978-1-4292-3719-2|pages=325}}</ref>
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| Motivation has been shown to have roots in physiological, behavioral, cognitive, and social areas. Motivation may be rooted in a basic impulse to optimize well-being, minimize physical pain and maximize pleasure. It can also originate from specific physical needs such as eating, sleeping or resting, and sex.
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| Motivation is an inner drive to behave or act in a certain manner. "It's the difference between waking up before dawn to pound the pavement and lazing around the house all day."<ref>Psychology today: [http://www.psychologytoday.com/basics/motivation Motivation - How to Get Motivated]</ref> These inner conditions such as wishes, desires and goals, activate to move in a particular direction in behavior.
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| ==Types of theories and models==
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| '''motivational theories'''
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| A class of theories about why people do things seeks to reduce the number of factors down to one and explain all behaviour through that one factor. For example, [[economics]] has been criticized for using self-interest as a mono-motivational theory.
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| <ref>{{cite book|last=Stretton|first=Hugh|title=Public goods, public enterprise, public choice : theoretical foundations of the contemporary attack on government|year=1994|publisher=Macmillan u.a.|location=Basingstoke u.a.|isbn=0333607244|edition=1. publ.|coauthors=Orchard, Lionel}}</ref> Mono-motivational theories are often criticized for being too reductive or too abstract. | |
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| ===Conscious and unconscious motivations===
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| A number of motivational theories emphasize the distinction between conscious and unconscious motivations. In [[evolutionary psychology]], the "ultimate", unconscious motivation may be a cold evolutionary calculation, the conscious motivation could be more benign or even positive emotions. For example, while it may be in the best interest of a male's genes to have multiple partners and thus break up with or divorce one before moving onto the next, the conscious rationalization could be, "I loved her at the time".
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| <ref>{{cite book|last=Wright|first=Robert|title=The moral animal : evolutionary psychology and everyday life|year=1995|publisher=Vintage Books|location=New York|isbn=0-679-76399-6|edition=1st Vintage books ed.}}</ref>
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| [[Freud]] is associated with the idea that human beings have many unconscious motivations that cause them to make important decisions because of these unconscious forces, such as choosing a partner. | |
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| ==Non-psychological theories==
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| ===Platonic theory of motivation===
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| In [[The Republic (Plato)|''The Republic'']], [[Plato]] advances a [[Plato's tripartite theory of soul|tri-partite theory of the soul]], which consists of three parts: reason, spirit and appetite. All parts of the soul have desires, however not all desires are the same. Desires take many different forms and have many different responses or results.<ref name=Plato>{{cite web|title=Plato A New Theory of the Human Soul|url=http://tab.faculty.asu.edu/chapter53.html|work=Ancient Greek Philosophy: From the Presocratics to the Hellenistic Philosophers|publisher=Blackwell|accessdate=21 March 2013}}</ref>
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| ===Machiavellianism===
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| [[Machiavellism]] argues that human beings are motivated to seek power and status above all. Modern research argues that people who are high in this trait do indeed seek power and money, and are willing to use others as instruments towards that end.
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| ==Psychological theories and models==
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| ===Rational motivations===
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| The idea that human beings are rational and human behaviour is guided by reason is an old one. However, recent research (on [[Satisficing]] for example) has significantly undermined the idea of [[homo economicus]] or of [[perfect rationality]] in favour of a more [[bounded rationality]]. The field of [[behavioural economics]] is particularly concerned with the limits of rationality in economic agents.
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| ===Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation===
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| Motivation can be divided into two types: intrinsic (internal) motivation and extrinsic (external) motivation.
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| ;Intrinsic motivation
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| Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation that is driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task itself, and exists within the individual rather than relying on external pressures or a desire for reward. Intrinsic motivation has been studied since the early 1970s.The phenomenon of intrinsic motivation was first acknowledged within experimental studies of animal behavior. In these studies, it was evident that the organisms would engage in playful and curiosity driven behaviors in the absence of reward. Intrinsic motivation is a natural motivational tendency and is a critical element in cognitive, social, and physical development.<ref name=Ryan>{{cite journal|last=Ryan|first=Richard|coauthors=Edward L. Deci|title=Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definitions and New Directions|journal=Contemporary Educational Psychology|year=2000|volume=25.1|pages=54–67|accessdate=16 October 2013}}</ref> Students who are intrinsically motivated are more likely to engage in the task willingly as well as work to improve their skills, which will increase their capabilities.<ref>Wigfield, A., Guthrie, J. T., Tonks, S., & Perencevich, K. C. (2004). Children's motivation for reading: Domain specificity and instructional influences. Journal of Educational Research, 97, 299-309.</ref> Students are likely to be intrinsically motivated if they:
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| * attribute their educational results to factors under their own control, also known as autonomy
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| * believe they have the skills to be effective agents in reaching their desired goals, also known as self-efficacy beliefs
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| * are interested in mastering a topic, not just in achieving good grades
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| ;Extrinsic motivation
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| Extrinsic motivation refers to the performance of an activity in order to attain an outcome, whether or not that activity is also intrinsically motivated. Extrinsic motivation comes from outside of the individual. Common extrinsic motivations are rewards (for example money or grades) for showing the desired behavior, and the threat of punishment following misbehavior. Competition is in an extrinsic motivator because it encourages the performer to win and to beat others, not simply to enjoy the intrinsic rewards of the activity. A cheering crowd and the desire to win a trophy are also extrinsic incentives.<ref name=Motivation>{{cite web|last=Dewani|first=Vijay|title=Motivation|url=http://www.slideshare.net/vijaydewani7/motivation-15959567|publisher=slideshare|accessdate=22 March 2013}}</ref>
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| ;Comparison of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
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| Social psychological research has indicated that extrinsic rewards can lead to [[overjustification effect|overjustification]] and a subsequent reduction in intrinsic motivation. In one study demonstrating this effect, children who expected to be (and were) rewarded with a ribbon and a gold star for drawing pictures spent less time playing with the drawing materials in subsequent observations than children who were assigned to an unexpected reward condition.<ref>Mark R. Lepper, David Greene and Richard Nisbet, "Undermining Children’s Intrinsic Interest with Extrinsic Reward; A Test of ‘Overjustification’ Hypothesis, " ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'' 28, 1973, 129‐37.</ref> While the provision of extrinsic [[reward system|rewards]] might reduce the desirability of an activity, the use of extrinsic constraints, such as the threat of punishment, against performing an activity has actually been found to increase one's intrinsic interest in that activity. In one study, when children were given mild threats against playing with an attractive toy, it was found that the threat actually served to increase the child's interest in the toy, which was previously undesirable to the child in the absence of threat.<ref>Wilson, T. D., & Lassiter, G. D. (1982). Increasing intrinsic interest with superfluous extrinsic constraints. ''Journal of personality and social psychology'', 42(5), 811-819.</ref>
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| For those children who received no extrinsic reward, [[self-determination theory]] proposes that extrinsic motivation can be internalized by the individual if the task fits with their values and beliefs and therefore helps to fulfill their basic psychological needs.
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| ;Operant conditioning
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| Operant conditioning, a term coined by B.F. Skinner, is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behaviour. Skinner believed that internal thoughts and motivations could not be used to explain behaviour; instead to look at external, observable causes of human behaviour. His theory explained how we acquire the range of learned behaviors we exhibit each and every day.<ref name="Operant Conditioning">{{cite web|last=Cherry|first=Kendra|title=Introduction to Operant Conditioning|url=http://psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsychology/a/introopcond.htm|publisher=About.com|accessdate=22 March 2013}}</ref>
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| ===Push and pull===
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| This model is usually used when discussing motivation within the context of tourism. Push factors determine the desire to go on holiday, whereas pull factors determine the choice of destination. Push motives are connected with internal forces, for example the need for relaxation or [[escapism]], while pull factors are the external factors, such as landscape, cultural image or the climate of a destination, that induce a traveller to visit a certain location.{{citation needed|date=February 2013}} Push factors can be stimulated by external and situational aspects of motivation in the shape of pull factors. Then again pull factors are issues that can arise from a location itself and therefore ‘push’ an individual to choose to experience it.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Tourist motivation: an appraisal. | author=Dann, G.M.S. | journal=Annals of Tourism research | year=1981 | volume=8 | pages=187–219}}</ref>
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| Since then, a large number of theories have been developed over the years in many studies there is no single theory that illustrates all motivational aspects of travelling. Many researchers have highlighted that because several motives may occur at the same time it should not be assumed that only one motive drives an individual to perform an action, as was presumed in previous studies.<ref>{{cite journal | title=The Psychological Nature of Leisure and Tourism Experience | author=Mannel, R.C. and Iso-Ahola, S. | journal=Annals of Tourism Research | year=1987 | volume=14 | pages=314–331}}</ref> On the other hand, since people are not able to satisfy all their needs at once, they usually seek to satisfy some or a few of them.{{citation needed|date=January 2013}}
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| ===Self-control===
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| The self-control aspect of motivation is increasingly considered to be a subset of [[emotional intelligence]]; it is suggested that although a person may be classed as highly intelligent (as measured by many traditional [[intelligence test]]s), they may remain unmotivated to pursue intellectual endeavours. [[Victor Vroom|Vroom]]'s "[[expectancy theory]]" provides an account of when people may decide to exert self-control in pursuit of a particular goal.
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| ===Drives===
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| {{main|Drive theory}}
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| A drive or desire can be described as ''a deficiency or need that activates behavior that is aimed at a goal or an incentive''.<ref name=Drive/Desire>{{cite web|title=Drive|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/drive?s=t|publisher=Dictionary.com|accessdate=22 March 2013}}</ref> These drives are thought to originate within the individual and may not require external stimuli to encourage the behavior. Basic drives could be sparked by deficiencies such as hunger, which motivates a person to seek food whereas more subtle drives might be the desire for praise and approval, which motivates a person to behave in a manner pleasing to others.
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| Another basic drive is the sexual drive which like food motivates us because it is essential to our survival.<ref name="Schacter, D.L. 2009">Schacter, D.L., Gilbert, D.L. and Wegner, D.M. (2009,2011) Psychology. 2nd ed. New York: Worth.</ref> The desire for sex is wired deep into the brain of all human beings as glands secrete hormones that travel through the blood to the brain and stimulates the onset of sexual desire.<ref name="Schacter, D.L. 2009"/> The hormone involved in the initial onset of sexual desire is called dihydroepiandosterone (DHEA).<ref name="Schacter, D.L. 2009"/> The hormonal basis of both men and women's sex drives is testosterone.<ref name="Schacter, D.L. 2009"/> Men naturally have more testosterone than women do and so are more likely than woman to think about sex, have sexual fantasies, seek sex and sexual variety (whether positions or partners), masturbate, want sex at an early point in a relationship, sacrifice other things for sex, have permissive attitudes for sex, and complain about low sex drive in their partners.<ref name="Schacter, D.L. 2009"/>
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| By contrast, the role of extrinsic rewards and stimuli can be seen in the example of training animals by giving them treats when they perform a trick correctly. The treat motivates the animals to perform the trick consistently, even later when the treat is removed from the process.
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| ===Incentive theory===
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| A '''[[reward (psychology)|reward]]''', tangible or intangible, is presented after the occurrence of an action (i.e. behavior) with the intention of causing the behavior to occur again. This is done by [[association (psychology)|associating]] positive meaning to the behavior. Studies show that if the person receives the reward immediately, the effect is greater, and decreases as delay lengthens. Repetitive action-reward combination can cause the action to become [[habit (psychology)|habit]]. Motivation comes from two sources: oneself, and other people. These two sources are called intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation, respectively.
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| '''Reinforcers''' and [[reinforcement]] principles of behavior differ from the hypothetical construct of reward. A reinforcer is any stimulus change following a response that increases the future frequency or magnitude of that response, therefore the cognitive approach is certainly the way forward as in 1973 Maslow described it as being the golden pineapple. Positive reinforcement is demonstrated by an increase in the future frequency or magnitude of a response due to in the past being followed contingently by a reinforcing stimulus. Negative reinforcement involves stimulus change consisting of the removal of an aversive stimulus following a response. Positive reinforcement involves a stimulus change consisting of the presentation or magnification of a positive stimulus following a response. From this perspective, motivation is mediated by environmental events, and the concept of distinguishing between intrinsic and extrinsic forces is irrelevant.
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| Applying proper motivational techniques can be much harder than it seems. Steven Kerr notes that when creating a reward system, it can be easy to reward A, while hoping for B, and in the process, reap harmful effects that can jeopardize your goals.
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| Incentive theory in psychology treats motivation and [[behavior]] of the individual as they are influenced by [[beliefs]], such as engaging in activities that are expected to be profitable. Incentive theory is promoted by [[behaviorism|behavioral psychologists]], such as [[B.F. Skinner]] and literalized by behaviorists, especially by Skinner in his [[philosophy]] of [[Radical behaviorism]], to mean that a person's actions always have [[social]] ramifications: and if actions are positively received people are more likely to act in this manner, or if negatively received people are less likely to act in this manner.
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| Incentive theory distinguishes itself from other motivation theories, such as [[drive theory]], in the direction of the motivation. In incentive theory, [[Stimulus (physiology)|stimuli]] "attract", to use the term above, a person towards them, as opposed to the body seeking to reestablish [[homeostasis]] and pushing towards the stimulus. In terms of behaviorism, ''incentive theory'' involves [[positive reinforcement]]: the reinforcing stimulus has been conditioned to make the person happier. For instance, a person knows that eating [[food]], drinking [[water]], or gaining [[social capital]] will make them happier. As opposed to in ''drive theory'', which involves [[negative reinforcement]]: a stimulus has been associated with the removal of the [[punishment]]—the lack of [[homeostasis]] in the body. For example, a person has come to know that if they eat when hungry, it will eliminate that negative feeling of [[hunger pangs|hunger]], or if they drink when thirsty, it will eliminate that negative feeling of thirst.
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| ===Escape-seeking dichotomy model===
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| Escapism and seeking are major factors influencing [[decision making]]. Escapism is a need to breakaway from a daily life routine, turning on the television and watching an adventure film, whereas seeking is described as the desire to learn, turning on the television to watch a documentary. Both motivations have some interpersonal and personal facets for example individuals would like to escape from family problems (personal) or from problems with work colleagues (interpersonal). This model can also be easily adapted with regard to different studies.
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| ===Drive-reduction theory===
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| There are a number of drive theories. The ''Drive Reduction Theory'' grows out of the concept that people have certain biological drives, such as hunger. As time passes the strength of the drive increases if it is not satisfied (in this case by eating). Upon satisfying a drive the drive's strength is reduced. The theory is based on diverse ideas from the theories of [[Freud]] to the ideas of [[feedback]] control systems, such as a [[thermostat]].
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| Drive theory has some intuitive or folk validity. For instance when preparing food, the drive model appears to be compatible with sensations of rising hunger as the food is prepared, and, after the food has been consumed, a decrease in subjective hunger. There are several problems, however, that leave the validity of drive reduction open for debate. The first problem is that it does not explain how secondary reinforcers reduce drive. For example, money satisfies no biological or psychological needs, but a pay check appears to reduce drive through [[second-order conditioning]]. Secondly, a drive, such as hunger, is viewed as having a "desire" to eat, making the drive a [[Homunculus#Homunculus argument|homuncular]] being—a feature criticized as simply moving the fundamental problem behind this "small man" and his desires.
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| Drive reduction theory cannot be a complete theory of behavior, or a hungry human could not prepare a meal without eating the food before he finished cooking it. The ability of drive theory to cope with all kinds of behavior, from not satisfying a drive (by adding on other traits such as restraint), or adding additional drives for "tasty" food, which combine with drives for food in order to explain cooking render it hard to test.
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| ===Cognitive dissonance theory===
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| Suggested by [[Leon Festinger]], [[cognitive dissonance]] occurs when an individual experiences some degree of discomfort resulting from an inconsistency between two cognitions: their views on the world around them, and their own personal feelings and actions. For example, a consumer may seek to reassure themselves regarding a purchase, feeling in retrospect that another decision may have been preferable. Their feeling that another purchase would have been preferable is inconsistent with their action of purchasing the item. The difference between their feelings and beliefs causes dissonance, so they seek to reassure themselves.
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| While not a theory of motivation, per se, the theory of cognitive dissonance proposes that people have a [[drive theory|motivational drive]] to reduce dissonance. The [[cognitive miser]] perspective makes people want to justify things in a simple way in order to reduce the effort they put into cognition. They do this by changing their attitudes, beliefs, or actions, rather than facing the inconsistencies, because dissonance is a mental strain. Dissonance is also reduced by justifying, blaming, and denying. It is one of the most influential and extensively studied theories in [[social psychology (psychology)|social psychology]].
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| ===Need theories===
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| '''Motivation''', as defined by Pritchard and Ashwood, is the process used to allocate energy to maximize the satisfaction of needs.<ref name=Pritchard2008>{{cite book |last=R. Pritchard & E. Ashwood |title=Managing Motivation |year=2008 |page=6 |publisher=Taylor & Francis Group |location=New York |isbn=978-1-84169-789-5}}</ref>
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| ====Maslow's hierarchy of needs====
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| [[Content theory]] of human motivation includes both [[Abraham Maslow]]'s [[Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs|hierarchy of needs]] and [[Frederick Herzberg|Herzberg]]'s two-factor theory. Maslow's theory is one of the most widely discussed theories of motivation.
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| The American motivation psychologist Abraham H. Maslow developed the hierarchy of needs consisting of five hierarchic classes. According to Maslow, people are motivated by unsatisfied needs.
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| The needs, listed from basic (lowest-earliest) to most complex (highest-latest) are as follows:
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| * [[Physiology]] (hunger, thirst, sleep, etc.)
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| * [[Safety]]/[[Security]]/Shelter/[[Health]]
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| * [[Belongingness]]/[[Love]]/[[Friendship]]
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| * [[Self-esteem]]/[[Recognition (sociology)|Recognition]]/Achievement
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| * [[Self actualization]]
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| The basic requirements build upon the first step in the pyramid: physiology. If there are deficits on this level, all behavior will be oriented to satisfy this deficit. Essentially, if you have not slept or eaten adequately, you won't be interested in your self-esteem desires. Subsequently we have the second level, which awakens a need for security. After securing those two levels, the motives shift to the social sphere, the third level. Psychological requirements comprise the fourth level, while the top of the hierarchy consists of self-realization and self-actualization.
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| Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs theory can be summarized as follows:
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| * Human beings have wants and desires which influence their behavior. Only unsatisfied needs influence behavior, satisfied needs do not.
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| * Needs are arranged in order of importance to human life, from the basic to the complex.
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| * The person advances to the next level of needs only after the lower level need is at least minimally satisfied.
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| * The further the progress up the hierarchy, the more individuality, humanness and psychological health a person will show.
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| ====Herzberg's two-factor theory====
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| {{Main|Two-factor theory}}
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| [[Frederick Herzberg]]'s two-factor theory, a.k.a. intrinsic/extrinsic motivation, concludes that certain factors in the workplace result in [[job satisfaction]], but if absent, they don't lead to dissatisfaction but no satisfaction. The factors that motivate people can change over their lifetime, but "respect for me as a person" is one of the top motivating factors at any stage of life.
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| He distinguished between:
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| * ''Motivators''; (e.g. challenging work, recognition, responsibility) which give positive satisfaction, and
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| * ''Hygiene factors''; (e.g. status, [[job security]], [[salary]] and fringe benefits) that do not motivate if present, but, if absent, result in demotivation.
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| The name hygiene factors is used because, like hygiene, the presence will not improve health, but absence can cause health deterioration.<br />
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| Herzberg's theory has found application in such occupational fields as information systems and in studies of user satisfaction such as [[computer user satisfaction]].
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| ====Alderfer's ERG theory====
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| Alderfer, expanding on Maslow's hierarchy of needs, created the ''ERG theory''. This theory posits that there are three groups of core needs — existence, relatedness, and growth, hence the label: ERG theory. The existence group is concerned with providing our basic material existence requirements. They include the items that Maslow considered to be physiological and safety needs. The second group of needs are those of relatedness- the desire we have for maintaining important personal relationships. These social and status desires require interaction with others if they are to be satisfied, and they align with Maslow's social need and the external component of Maslow's esteem classification. Finally, Alderfer isolates growth needs as an intrinsic desire for personal development. These include the intrinsic component from Maslow's esteem category and the characteristics included under self-actualization.
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| ====Self-determination theory====
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| During the early nineties Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan{{cn|source needed that states that Deci and Ryan were the ones who proposed this theory|date=December 2013}} proposed the [[self-determination theory]] (SDT). This theory focuses on the degree to which an individual’s behaviour is self-motivated and self-determined. SDT identifies three innate needs that, if satisfied, allow optimal function and growth: competence,<ref name="Harter, S. 1978">Harter, S. (1978). Effectance motivation reconsidered: Toward a developmental model. ''Human Development'', ''1'', 661–669.</ref><ref name="White, R. W. 1963">White, R. W. (1963). ''Ego and reality in psychoanalytic theory''. New York: International Universities Press.</ref> relatedness,<ref name="Baumeister, R. 1995">Baumeister, R., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''117'', 497–529.</ref> and autonomy.<ref name="deCharms, R. 1968">deCharms, R. (1968). Personal causation. New York: Academic Press.</ref><ref name="Deci, E. L. 1975">Deci, E. L. (1975). ''Intrinsic motivation''. New York: Plenum.</ref>
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| These three psychological needs motivate the self to initiate specific behaviour and mental nutriments that are essential for psychological health and well-being. When these needs are satisfied, there are positive consequences, such as well-being and growth, leading people to be motivated, productive and happy. When they are thwarted, people's motivation, productivity and happiness plummet.{{cn|date=December 2013}}
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| There are three essential elements to the theory:<ref name="Deci, E. L. 2004">Deci, E. L., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2004). Self-determination theory and basic need satisfaction: Understanding human development in positive psychology. ''Ricerche di Psichologia'', ''27'', 17–34.</ref>
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| * Humans are inherently proactive with their potential and mastering their inner forces (such as drive and emotions).
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| * Humans have an inherent tendency towards growth, development and integrated functioning.
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| * Optimal development and actions are inherent in humans but they do not happen automatically.
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| ===Temporal motivation theory===
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| The latest approach in developing a broad, integrative theory of motivation is [[Temporal motivation theory|Temporal Motivation Theory]].<ref>http://webapps2.ucalgary.ca/~steel/images/Integrating.pdf</ref> Introduced in a 2006 ''Academy of Management Review'' article,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Steel|first=Piers|coauthors=C. König|title=Integrating theories of motivation|journal=Academy of Management Review|year=2006|volume=31|pages=889–913|url=http://managementdemand.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/Integrating-Motivation.pdf|doi=10.5465/AMR.2006.22527462}}</ref> it synthesizes into a single formulation the primary aspects of several other major motivational theories, including Incentive Theory, Drive Theory, Need Theory, Self-Efficacy and Goal Setting. It simplifies the field of motivation and allows findings from one theory to be translated into terms of another. Another journal article that helped to develop the [[Temporal motivation theory|Temporal Motivation Theory]], "The Nature of Procrastination,<ref name=Steel2007>{{cite journal |doi=10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 |url=http://studiemetro.au.dk/fileadmin/www.studiemetro.au.dk/Procrastination_2.pdf |title=The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure |year=2007 |last1=Steel |first1=Piers |journal=Psychological Bulletin |volume=133 |pages=65–94 |pmid=17201571 |issue=1}}</ref> " received American Psychological Association's [[George Armitage Miller|George A. Miller]] award for outstanding contribution to general science.
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| ===Achievement motivation===
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| Achievement motivation is an integrative perspective based on the premise that performance motivation results from the way broad components of personality are directed towards performance. As a result, it includes a range of dimensions that are relevant to success at work but which are not conventionally regarded as being part of performance motivation. The emphasis on performance seeks to integrate formerly separate approaches as [[need for achievement]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Atkinson|first=John|title=A Theory of Achievement Motivation|year=1974|publisher=Krieger Pub Co|isbn=0-88275-166-2|edition=6|coauthors=Norman Feather}}</ref> with, for example, social motives like dominance. Personality is intimately tied to performance and achievement motivation, including such characteristics as tolerance for risk, fear of failure, and others.<ref>{{cite book|last=Atkinson|first=John|title=Achievement Motive and Text Anxiety Conceived as Motive to Approach Success and Motive to Avoid Failure|year=1960|publisher=Bobbs-Merrill Company|coauthors=George H. Litwin}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Atkinson|first=John|title=Personality, Motivation and Achievement|year=1978|publisher=Hemisphere Pub. Corp|isbn=0-470-99336-7|coauthors=Joel O. Raynor}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Achievement Motivation|url=http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Achievement_motivation|publisher=Wikiversity|accessdate=10/08/2013}}</ref>
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| Achievement motivation can be measured by The Achievement Motivation Inventory, which is based on this theory and assesses three factors (in 17 separated scales) relevant to vocational and professional success. This motivation has repeatedly been linked with adaptive motivational patterns, including working hard, a willingness to pick learning tasks with much difficulty, and contributing success to effort.<ref>Xiang, P., McBride, R., & Guan, J. (2004). Children's motivation in elementary physical education: A longitudinal study. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 75(1), 71-80. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/218551698?accountid=14771</ref>
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| Achievement motivation was studied intensively by [[David C. McClelland]], [[John William Atkinson|John W. Atkinson]] and their colleagues since the early 1950s.<ref>{{cite book|last=McClelland|first=David|title=The Achievement Motive|year=1953|publisher=Appleton-Century-Crofts|location=New York}}</ref> Their research showed that business managers who were successful demonstrated a high need to achieve no matter the culture. There are three major characteristics of people who have a great need to achieve according to McClelland’s research.
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| #They would prefer a work environment in which they are able to assume responsibility for solving problems.
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| #They would take calculated risk and establish moderate, attainable goals.
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| #They want to hear continuous recognition, as well as feedback, in order for them to know how well they are doing.<ref>{{cite book|last=Schultz & Schultz|first=Duane|title=Psychology and work today|year=2010|publisher=Prentice Hall|location=New York|isbn=978-81-317-3370-7|pages=121–122}}</ref>
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| ===Cognitive theories===
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| ====Goal-setting theory====
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| [[Goal-setting theory]] is based on the notion that individuals sometimes have a drive to reach a clearly defined end state. Often, this end state is a reward in itself. A goal's efficiency is affected by three features: proximity, difficulty and specificity. Good goal setting incorporates the [[SMART criteria]], in which goals are: specific, measurable, accurate, realistic, and timely. An ideal goal should present a situation where the time between the initiation of behavior and the end state is close. This explains why some children are more motivated to learn how to ride a bike than to master [[algebra]]. A goal should be moderate, not too hard or too easy to complete. In both cases, most people are not optimally motivated, as many want a challenge (which assumes some kind of insecurity of success). At the same time people want to feel that there is a substantial probability that they will succeed. Specificity concerns the description of the goal in their class. The goal should be objectively defined and intelligible for the individual. A classic example of a poorly specified goal is to get the highest possible grade. Most children have no idea how much effort they need to reach that goal.
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| ===Models of behavior change===
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| Social-cognitive models of behavior change include the constructs of motivation and [[volition (psychology)|volition]]. Motivation is seen as a process that leads to the forming of behavioral intentions. Volition is seen as a process that leads from intention to actual behavior. In other words, motivation and volition refer to goal setting and goal pursuit, respectively. Both processes require self-regulatory efforts. Several self-regulatory constructs are needed to operate in [[orchestration]] to attain goals. An example of such a motivational and volitional construct is perceived [[self-efficacy]]. Self-efficacy is supposed to facilitate the forming of behavioral intentions, the development of action plans, and the initiation of action. It can support the translation of intentions into action.
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| [[John William Atkinson|John W. Atkinson]], David Birch and their colleagues developed the theory of "Dynamics of Action" to mathematically model change in behavior as a consequence of the interaction of motivation and associated tendencies toward specific actions.<ref>{{cite book|last=Atkinson|first=John|title=The Dynamics of Action|year=1970|publisher=Wiley|location=New York|isbn=0-471-03624-2|coauthors=David Birch}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Kuhl|first=Julius|title=Motivation, Thought, and Action|year=1986|publisher=Praeger Publishers|location=New York|isbn=0-275-92096-8|coauthors=John W. Atkinson}}</ref> The theory posits that change in behavior occurs when the tendency for a new, unexpressed behavior becomes dominant over the tendency currently motivating action. In the theory, the strength of tendencies rises and falls as a consequence of internal and external stimuli (sources of instigation), inhibitory factors, and consummatory in factors such as performing an action. In this theory, there are three causes responsible for behavior and change in behavior:
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| # Instigation (Ts) - increases tendency when an activity has intrinsic ability to satisfy;
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| # Inhibition (Taf) - decreases tendency when there are obstacles to performing an activity; and
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| # Consummation - decreases a tendency as it is performed.<ref>{{cite book|last=Atkinson|first=John|title=Introduction to Motivation|year=1978|publisher=D. Van Nostrand Company|location=New York|coauthors=David Birch}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Reeve|first=J|title=Understanding motivation and emotion|year=2009|publisher=Wiley|location=Hoboken, NJ|edition=5}}</ref>
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| ===Conscious motivation===
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| This is a kind of motivation that people are aware of.<ref name="Schacter, Daniel 2011. p.340">Schacter, Daniel. "Psychology". Worth Publishers. 2011. p.340</ref>
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| ===Unconscious motivation===
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| Some [[psychologist]]s believe that a significant portion of human behavior is energized and directed by unconscious motives. According to [[Abraham Maslow|Maslow]], "Psychoanalysis has often demonstrated that the relationship between a conscious desire and the ultimate unconscious aim that underlies it need not be at all direct."
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| ===Thematic Appreception Test===
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| Psychologists [[David C. McClelland]] and [[John William Atkinson|John W. Atkinson]] argued that motivation should be unconscious. They refined measures of motivation by means of [[content analysis]] of [[Imagination|imaginative thought]] using, for example, the [[Thematic Apperception Test]].'<ref name="Schacter, Daniel 2011. p.340"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Atkinson|first=John|title=Motives in Fantasy, Action, and Society: a method of assessment and study|year=1958|publisher=Van Nostrand|isbn=0-442-00367-6}}</ref>
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| ===Intrinsic motivation and the 16 basic desires theory===
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| Starting from studies involving more than 6,000 people, Professor Steven Reiss has proposed a theory that found 16 basic desires that guide nearly all human behavior.<ref name='Reiss New Theory'>{{cite web | url = http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whoami.htm | title = New Theory of Motivation Lists 16 Basic Desires That Guide Us | accessdate = 2012-06-02 | date = 2000-06-28 | work = Research News | publisher = [[Ohio State]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Reiss | first1 = Steven | title = Who am I? The 16 Basic Desires that Motivate Our Actions and Define Our Personalities | publisher = [[Berkley Trade]] | date = March 5, 2002 | accessdate = 2012-06-02 | isbn = 978-0425183403}}</ref> The 16 basic desires that motivate our actions and define our personalities are:
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| {{columns-list|2|
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| * [[Acceptance]], the need for approval
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| * [[Curiosity]], the need to learn
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| * [[Eating]], the need for food
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| * [[Family]], the need to raise children
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| * [[Honor]], the need to be loyal to the traditional values of one's clan/ethnic group
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| * [[Idealism]], the need for social justice
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| * [[Independence]], the need for individuality
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| * [[Social order|Order]], the need for organized, stable, predictable environments
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| * [[Physical activity]], the need for exercise
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| * [[Power (social and political)|Power]], the need for influence of will
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| * [[Romance (love)|Romance]], the need for sex and for beauty
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| * [[Saving]], the need to collect
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| * [[Social relation|Social contact]], the need for friends (peer relationships)
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| * [[Social status]], the need for social standing/importance
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| * [[Tranquility]], the need to be safe
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| * [[Vengeance (concept)|Vengeance]], the need to strike back and to compete
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| }}
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| ===Attribution Theory===
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| The [[Attribution (psychology)|attribution]] theory is a theory developed by psychologist, [[Fritz Heider]] that describes the processes by which individuals explain the causes of their behavior and events.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kassin|first=Saul|title=Social Psychology|year=2007|publisher=Wadsworth: Cengage Learning|isbn=0618868461}}</ref> A form of attribution theory developed by psychologist, [[Bernard Weiner]] describes an individual’s beliefs about how the causes of success or failure affect their emotions and motivations. Bernard Weiner’s theory can be defined into two perspectives: intrapersonal or interpersonal. The intrapersonal perspective includes self-directed thoughts and emotions that are attributed to the self. The interpersonal perspective includes beliefs about the responsibility of others and other directed affects of emotions; the individual would place the blame on another individual.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Weiner|first=Bernard|title=Interpersonal and intrapersonal theories of motivation from an attributional perspective|journal=Educational Psychology Review|year=2000|volume=12|issue=1|pages=1–14}}</ref>
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| Individuals formulate explanatory attributions to understand the events they experience and to seek reasons for their failures. When individuals seek positive feedback from their failures, they use the feedback as motivation to show improved performances. For example, using the intrapersonal perspective, a student who failed a test may attribute their failure for not studying enough and would use their emotion of shame or embarrassment as motivation to study harder for the next test. A student who blames their test failure on the teacher would be using the interpersonal perspective, and would use their feeling of disappointment as motivation to rely on a different study source other than the teacher for the next test.
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| ===Approach versus avoidance===
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| Approach motivation is a motivation to experience a positive outcome. In contrast, avoidance motivation is a motivation ''not'' to experience a negative outcome.<ref name="Schacter, Daniel 2011. p.340"/> Research suggests that, all else being equal, avoidance motivations tend to be more powerful than approach motivations. Because people expect losses to have more powerful emotional consequences than equal-size gains, they will take more risks to avoid a loss than to achieve a gain.<ref name="Schacter, Daniel 2011. p.340"/>
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| ==Practical applications==
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| The control of motivation is only understood to a limited extent. There are many different approaches of ''motivation training'', but many of these are considered [[pseudoscientific]] by critics. To understand how to control motivation it is first necessary to understand why many people lack motivation.
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| ===Employee motivation===
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| {{main|Employee motivation}}
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| {{merge section to|Work motivation|date=October 2013}}
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| Workers in any organization need something to keep them working. Most of the time, the [[salary]] of the employee is enough to keep him or her working for an organization. An employee must be motivated to work for a company or organization. If no motivation is present in an employee, then that employee’s quality of work or all work in general will deteriorate.
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| People differ on a personality dimension called locus of control. This variable refers to individual's beliefs about the location of the factors that control their behavior. At one end of the continuum are high internals who believe that opportunity to control their own behavior rests within themselves. At the other end of the continuum there are high externals who believe that external forces determine their behavior. Not surprisingly, compared with internals, externals see the world as an unpredictable, chancy place in which luck, fate, or powerful people control their destinies.<ref>Rotter, J.B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external controls of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs, 80 (Whole no. 609)</ref>
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| When motivating an audience, you can use general motivational strategies or specific motivational appeals. General motivational strategies include soft sell versus hard sell and personality type. Soft sell strategies have logical appeals, emotional appeals, advice and praise. Hard sell strategies have barter, outnumbering, pressure and rank. Also, you can consider basing your strategy on your audience personality. Specific motivational appeals focus on provable facts, feelings, right and wrong, audience rewards and audience [[threat]]s.<ref>Thomas, Jane. Guide to Managerial Persuasion and Influence. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2004. Print.
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| </ref>
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| ====Job Characteristics Model====
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| {{See also|Work motivation|Job satisfaction}}
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| The [[Job satisfaction#Job characteristics model|Job Characteristics Model]] (JCM), as designed by Hackman and Oldham attempts to use job design to improve employee motivation. They show that any job can be described in terms of five key job characteristics:<ref>J.R. Hackman and G.R. Oldham. Work Redesign. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Education, Inc, 1980; pp 78-80.</ref><ref>Katz, Ralph. Motivating Technical Professionals Today. ''[[IEEE Technology Management Council|IEEE Engineering Management Review]]'', Vol. 41, No. 1, March 2013, pp. 28-38</ref>
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| 1. ''Skill Variety'' - the degree to which the job requires the use of different skills and talents
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| 2. ''Task Identity'' - the degree to which the job has contributed to a clearly identifiable larger project
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| 3. ''Task Significance'' - the degree to which the job has an impact on the lives or work of other people
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| 4. ''Autonomy'' - the degree to which the employee has independence, freedom and discretion in carrying out the job
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| 5. ''Task Feedback'' - the degree to which the employee is provided with clear, specific, detailed, ''[[Action Item|actionable]]'' information about the effectiveness of his or her job performance
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| The JCM links the core job dimensions listed above to critical psychological states which results in desired personal and work outcomes. This forms the basis of this 'employee growth-need strength." The core dimensions listed above can be combined into a single predictive index, called the ''[[#Motivating Potential Score|Motivating Potential Score]]''.
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| =====Motivating Potential Score=====
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| {{See also|Work motivation|Job satisfaction}}
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| The motivating potential score (MPS) can be calculated, using the core dimensions discussed above, as follows:
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| :<math>{\text{MPS}}=\frac{\text{Skill Variety + Task Identity + Task Significance } }{\text{3} }{\text{ x Autonomy x Feedback}}</math>
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| Jobs that are high in motivating potential must be high on at least one of the three factors that lead to experienced meaningfulness, and also must be high on both Autonomy and Feedback.<ref name=Steel2012>Steel, Piers. Motivation: Theory and Applied. Boston, MA: Pearson Learning Solutions, 2012. Print. pp. 49</ref> If a job has a high MPS, the job characteristics model predicts that motivation, performance and job satisfaction will be positively affected and the likelihood of negative outcomes, such as absenteeism and turnover, will be reduced.<ref name=Steel2012 />
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| ====Employee recognition programs====
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| Employee recognition is not only about gifts and points. It's about changing the corporate culture in order to meet goals and initiatives and most importantly to connect employees to the company's core values and beliefs. Strategic employee recognition is seen as the most important program not only to improve employee retention and motivation but also to positively influence the financial situation.<ref>[http://www.cfo-insight.com/human-capital-career/talent-management/how-employee-recognition-programmes-improves-retention/ How Employee Recognition Programmes Improve Retention] ''CFO Insight Magazine'', January 2013</ref> The difference between the traditional approach (gifts and points) and strategic recognition is the ability to serve as a serious business influencer that can advance a company’s strategic objectives in a measurable way. "The vast majority of companies want to be innovative, coming up with new products, business models and better ways of doing things. However, innovation is not so easy to achieve. A CEO cannot just order it, and so it will be. You have to carefully manage an organization so that, over time, innovations will emerge."<ref>[http://www.forbes.com/sites/freekvermeulen/2011/05/30/five-mistaken-beliefs-business-leaders-have-about-innovation/ Five mistaken beliefs business leaders have about innovation] by Freek Vermeulen in ''Forbes'', May 2011</ref>
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| ===Drugs===
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| Some authors, especially in the [[transhumanist]] movement, have suggested the use of "smart drugs", also known as [[nootropic]]s, as "motivation-enhancers". These drugs work in various ways to affect neurotransmitters in the brain. It is generally widely accepted that these drugs enhance cognitive functions, but not without potential side effects.<ref>Stevens, Sharni. Cognitive Enhancement: A Boost in the Right Direction?. The Triple Helix. 2011.</ref> The effects of many of these drugs on the brain are emphatically not well understood, and their legal status often makes open experimentation difficult.{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}}
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| ===Education===
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| Motivation is of particular interest to [[educational psychology|educational psychologists]] because of the crucial role it plays in student learning. However, the specific kind of motivation that is studied in the specialized setting of education differs qualitatively from the more general forms of motivation studied by psychologists in other fields.
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| Motivation in education can have several effects on how students learn and how they behave towards subject matter.<ref>Ormrod, 2003</ref> It can:
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| # Direct behavior toward particular goals
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| # Lead to increased effort and energy
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| # Increase initiation of, and persistence in, activities
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| # Enhance cognitive processing
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| # Determine what consequences are reinforcing
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| # Lead to improved performance.
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| Because students are not always internally motivated, they sometimes need ''situated motivation'', which is found in environmental conditions that the teacher creates.
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| If teachers decided to extrinsically reward productive student behaviors, they may find it difficult to extricate themselves from that path. Consequently student dependency on extrinsic rewards represents one of the greatest detractors from their use in the classroom.<ref>Williams, R. L., & Stockdale, S. L., [http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P3-649207301.html "Classroom Motivation Strategies for Prospective Teachers"], "The Teacher Educator", 2004</ref>
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| The majority of new student orientation leaders at colleges and universities recognize that distinctive needs of students should be considered in regard to orientation information provided at the beginning of the higher education experience. Research done by Whyte in 1986 raised the awareness of counselors and educators in this regard. In 2007, the National Orientation Directors Association reprinted [[Cassandra B. Whyte]]'s research report allowing readers to ascertain improvements made in addressing specific needs of students over a quarter of a century later to help with academic success.<ref>Whyte, Cassandra B. (2007). An Additional Look at Orientation Programs Nationally- (reprint of 1986 article in same journal). National Orientation Directiors Association Journal. 15 (1). 71-77.</ref>
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| Generally, motivation is conceptualized as either ''intrinsic'' or ''extrinsic''. Classically, these categories are regarded as distinct.<ref>Alexander, P., Ryan, R., & Deci, E. (January 01, 2000). Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definitions and New Directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 1.</ref> Today, these concepts are less likely to be used as distinct categories, but instead as two [[ideal type]]s that define a [[continuum (theory)|continuum]]:<ref>Vallerand, R. J. (March 08, 1993). The Academic Motivation Scale: A Measure of Intrinsic, Extrinsic, and Amotivation in Education. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 52, 4, 1003-17.</ref>
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| * '''[[#Intrinsic motivation and the 16 basic desires theory|Intrinsic motivation]]''' occurs when people are internally motivated to do something because it either brings them pleasure, they think it is important, or they feel that what they are learning is significant. It has been shown that intrinsic motivation for education drops from grades 3-9 though the exact cause cannot be ascertained.<ref>Susan Harter (1981), A New Self-Report Scale of Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Orientation in the Classroom: Motivational and Informational Components</ref> Also, in younger students it has been shown that contextualizing material that would otherwise be presented in an abstract manner increases the intrinsic motivation of these students.<ref>Diana Cordova, Mark Lepper (1995) Intrinsic Motivation and the Process of Learning:Beneficial Effects of Contextualization, Personalization, and Choice</ref>
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| * '''[[#Extrinsic motivation|Extrinsic motivation]]''' comes into play when a student is compelled to do something or act a certain way because of factors external to him or her (like money or good grades).
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| Cassandra B. Whyte researched and reported about the importance of locus of control and academic achievement. Students tending toward a more internal locus of control are more academically successful, thus encouraging curriculum and activity development with consideration of motivation theories.<ref>Whyte, Cassandra B. (1979) Effective Counseling Methods for High-Risk College Freshmen. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling. 6 (4). 198-200.</ref><ref>Lauridsen, K. (editor) and Whyte, C.B. (1980). An Integrated counseling and Learning Assistance Center.New Directions Sourcebook. Jossey-Bass, Inc.</ref>
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| Academic motivation orientation may also be tied with one's ability to detect and process errors. Fisher, Nanayakkara, and Marshall conducted neuroscience research on children's motivation orientation, neurological indicators of error monitoring (the process of detecting an error), and academic achievement. Their research suggests that students with high intrinsic motivation attribute performance to personal control and that their error-monitoring system is more strongly engaged by performance errors. They also found that motivation orientation and academic achievement were related to the strength in which their error-monitoring system was engaged.<ref>Fisher, K., Marshall, M., & Nanayakkara, A. (2009). Motivational orientation, error monitoring, and academic performance in middle childhood: A behavioral and electrophysiological investigation. Mind, Brain, and Education, 3, 56-63.</ref>
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| Motivation has been found to be an important element in the concept of [[Andragogy]] (what motivates the adult learner), and in treating Autism Spectrum Disorders, as in [[Pivotal Response Therapy]].
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| Doyle and Moeyn have noted that traditional methods tended to use anxiety as negative motivation (e.g. use of bad grades by teachers) as a method of getting students to work. However, they have found that progressive approaches with focus on positive motivation over punishment has produced greater effectiveness with learning, since anxiety interferes with performance of complex tasks.<ref>Moen, R., & Doyle, K. O. (1978). Measures of Academic Motivation: A Conceptual Review. Research in Higher Education, 8, 1-23. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/40195071</ref>
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| ====Indigenous education, learning, and motivation====
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| For many indigenous students (such as Native American children), motivation may be derived from social organization; an important factor educators should account for in addition to variations in [[Sociolinguistics]] and [[Cognition]].<ref>Instructional Conversations in Native American Classrooms (1994). Center for Applied Linguistics: Online Digests (5).</ref> While poor academic performance among Native American students is often attributed to low levels of motivation, [[Top-down]] classroom organization is often found to be ineffective for children of many cultures, who depend on a sense of community purpose and competence to effectively engage in material.<ref>Dennis M. McInerney and Karen Gayton Swisher (1995). Exploring Navajo Motivation in School Settings. Journal of American Indian Education, 34 (3).</ref> Horizontally-structured, community-based learning strategies often provide a more structurally supportive environment for motivating indigenous children, who tend to be driven by “social/affective emphasis, harmony, holistic perspectives, expressive creativity, and nonverbal communication.”<ref>Cornel Pewewardy (2002). Learning Styles of American Indian/Alaska Native Students: A Review of the Literature and Implications for Practice. Journal of American Indian Education, 41 (3)</ref> This drive is also traceable to a cultural tradition of community-wide expectations of participation in the activities and goals of the greater group, rather than individualized aspirations of success or triumph.<ref>Wilfred Pelletier (1969). Childhood in an Indian Village. Institute for Indian Studies. Neewin Publishing, Toronto, Ontario.</ref>
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| Structure for social learning in indigenous communities also often allows siblings to co-parent younger children in their acquisition of behaviors and traditions,<ref name="Maynard, A. E. 2004">Maynard, A. E. (2004). Cultures of teaching in childhood: formal schooling and maya sibling teaching at home. Cognitive Development, 19(4), 517-535</ref> which fosters the dynamic of community-motivated engagement from a young age. Furthermore, it is commonplace for children to assist and demonstrate for their younger counterparts without being prompted by authority figures.<ref name="Maynard, A. E. 2004"/> [[Observation]] techniques are demonstrated in such examples as [[weaving]] in Chiapas, Mexico, where it is commonplace for children to learn by "a more skilled other" within the community.<ref name="Greenfield P. M">Greenfield, P. M., Maynard, A. E., & Childs, C. P. (2000). History, culture, learning, and development. Cross-cultural research, 34(4), 351-374.</ref> The assumption of [[responsibility]] amongst children is also apparent within Mayan weaving apprenticeships; often, when the "more skilled other" is tasked with multiple obligations, an older child will step in and guide the learner.<ref name="Greenfield P. M"/> Sibling guidance is supported from early youth, where [[learning through play]] encourages horizontally-structured environments through alternative educational models such as "Intent Community Participation."<ref>Rogoff, Barbara (2011). Developing Destinies: A Mayan Midwife and Town. Cambridge: Oxford University Press.</ref> Research also suggests that that formal Westernized schooling can actually reshape the traditionally collaborative nature of social life in indigenous communities <ref>Pablo Chavajay (2002). Schooling and Traditional Collaborative Social Organization of Problem Solving by Mayan Mothers and Children. American Psychological Association. {{DOI|10.1037//0012-1649.38.1.55}}</ref> This research is supported cross-culturally, with variations in motivation and learning often reported higher between indigenous groups and their national Westernized counterparts than between indigenous groups across international continental divides.<ref>Ole Fredrik Lillemyr, Frode Søbstad, Kurt Marder, Terri Flowerday (2010). European Early Childhood Education Research Journal. Vol. 18, Iss. 2, 2010.</ref>
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| ====Self-determination in education====
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| Self-determination is the ability to make choices and exercise a high degree of control, such as what the student does and how they do it (Deci et al., 1991; Reeve, Hamm, & Nix, 2003; Ryan & Deci, 2002). Self-determination can be supported by providing opportunities for students to be challenged, such as leadership opportunities, providing appropriate feedback and fostering, establishing and maintaining good relationships between teachers and students. These strategies can increase students' interest, competence, creativity and desire to be challenged and ensure that students are intrinsically motivated to study. On the other hand, students who lack of self-determination are more likely to feel their success is out of their control. Such students lose motivation to study, which causes a state of "helpless learning". Students who feel helpless readily believe they will fail and therefore cease to try. Over time, a vicious circle of low achievement develops.<ref>Self-Determination
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| Self-determination is an ability to make choices and have high degree of control, such as what should we do and how we do it. (Deci et al., 1991;Reeve, Hamm, & Nix, 2003; Ryan & Deci, 2002).</ref>
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| ====Physical activity in education====
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| Physical activity is body movement that works your muscles and requires more energy than resting. According to a blog by the American Intercontinental University, college students should make time for exercise to maintain and increase motivation. AIU states that regular exercise has impeccable effects on the brain. With consistent running routines, there are more complex connections between neurons, meaning the brain is able to access its brain cells more flexibly. By performing well physically, motivation will be present in education because of how well the brain is performing. After exercising, the brain can have more desire to obtain knowledge and better retain the information. In addition, exercise can relieve stress. Exercising can ease anxiety and relieve negative effects of stress on the body. Without stress factors, individuals can perform better and more efficiently, since their minds will have a more positive outlook. This positive mood will help keep students motivated and more open and willing to succeed academically. Lastly, exercise increases focus and concentration that could also help students maintain their motivation and focus on their studies. AIU claims that exercise may have improved the students’ ability to participate and retain information during the class after they had exercised. By being able to retain information and be more willing to participate will keep the students motivated and perform academically well.<ref>American Intercontinental University. [http://www.aiuniv.edu/Student-Life/Blog/September-2012/5-Reasons-College-Students-Should-Make-Time-For-Exercise 5 Reasons College Students Should Make Time For Exercise.] N.p., 14 Sept. 2012. Web. 27 July 2013.</ref>
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| ====Healthy sleeping habits in education====
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| Sleep is a natural periodic state of rest for the mind and body. According to the American Academy of Sleep Medicine, it is important and essential for students to obtain the right amount of sleep in order to succeed in academics. AASM states that getting good nights of sleep is one of the best ways to maximize performance on finals. It is possible that the more chaotic and sporadic one’s sleeping schedule is, the harder it will be for that individual to get an A or B on an exam. Dr. Kushida from AASM proclaims that sleep loss may lead to learning and memory impairment. In addition, she also comments that lack of sleep can lead to decreased attention and vigilance. So, with small amounts of sleep, individuals cannot maintain all their memory or focus needed to score well in their classes. Therefore, sleep is a requirement in education if the individual wants to succeed academically. The right amount of sleep will enable individuals to keep their motivation and good grades in education. Without sleep, students and individual’s memory capacity can become so minimal that it is possible for them not to even remember what they are supposed to do in a day’s time. In addition, with a lack of sleep, students cannot physically withhold and function for a long time, since their bodies will not have the energy. So, with enough sleep, students’ minds will be clearer and have more potential to contain information. At the same time, students would be granted with more motivation and energy since their minds and bodies will be more willing to obtain information.<ref>American Academy of Sleep Medicine. [http://www.aasmnet.org/articles.aspx?id=659 College Students: Getting Enough Sleep is Vital to Academic Success] "AASM News Archive." AASM. N.p., 07 Nov. 2007. Web. 27 July 2013.</ref>
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| ===Business===
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| {{main|Work motivation}}
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| {{merge section to|Work motivation|date=October 2013}}
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| At lower levels of [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs]], such as physiological needs, money is a motivator, however it tends to have a motivating effect on staff that lasts only for a short period (in accordance with [[Frederick Herzberg|Herzberg]]'s two-factor model of motivation). At higher levels of the hierarchy, praise, respect, recognition, [[empowerment]] and a sense of belonging are far more powerful motivators than money, as both [[Abraham Maslow]]'s theory of motivation and [[Douglas McGregor (business theorist)|Douglas McGregor]]'s [[theory X and theory Y]] (pertaining to the theory of leadership) demonstrate.
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| According to Maslow, people are motivated by unsatisfied needs.<ref>Tom P (2004). Managing IT According To A Hierarchy Of Needs. N/A. http://archive.webpronews.com/it/itmanagement/wpn-18-20040302ManagingITAccordingtoaHierarchyofNeeds.html</ref> The lower level needs such as Physiological and Safety needs will have to be satisfied before higher level needs are to be addressed. We can relate Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs theory with employee motivation. For example, if a manager is trying to motivate his employees by satisfying their needs; according to Maslow, he should try to satisfy the lower level needs before he tries to satisfy the upper level needs or the employees will not be motivated. Also he has to remember that not everyone will be satisfied by the same needs. A good manager will try to figure out which levels of needs are active for a certain individual or employee.
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| Maslow has money at the lowest level of the hierarchy and shows other needs are better motivators to staff. McGregor places money in his Theory X category and feels it is a poor motivator. Praise and recognition are placed in the Theory Y category and are considered stronger motivators than money.
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| * Motivated employees always look for better ways to do a job.
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| * Motivated employees are more quality oriented.
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| * Motivated workers are more productive.
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| The average workplace is about midway between the extremes of high threat and high opportunity. Motivation by threat is a dead-end strategy, and naturally staff are more attracted to the opportunity side of the motivation curve than the threat side. Motivation is a powerful tool in the work environment that can lead to employees working at their most efficient levels of production.<ref>Steinmetz, L. (1983) Nice Guys Finish Last: Management Myths and Reality. Boulder, Colorado: Horizon Publications Inc.</ref>
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| Nonetheless, Steinmetz also discusses three common character types of subordinates: ascendant, indifferent, and ambivalent who all react and interact uniquely, and must be treated, managed, and motivated accordingly. An effective leader must understand how to manage all characters, and more importantly the manager must utilize avenues that allow room for employees to work, grow, and find answers independently.<ref>Steinmetz, L.L. (1983) Nice Guys Finish Last: Management Myths and Reality. Boulder, Colorado: Horizon Publications Inc. (pp. 43–44)</ref>
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| The assumptions of Maslow and Herzberg were challenged by a classic study<ref>Goldthorpe, J.H., Lockwood, D., Bechhofer, F. and Platt, J. (1968) The Affluent Worker: Attitudes and Behaviour Cambridge: [[Cambridge University Press]].</ref> at Vauxhall Motors' UK manufacturing plant. This introduced the concept of orientation to work and distinguished three main orientations: instrumental (where work is a means to an end), bureaucratic (where work is a source of status, security and immediate reward) and solidaristic (which prioritizes group loyalty).
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| Other theories which expanded and extended those of Maslow and Herzberg included [[Kurt Lewin]]'s Force Field Theory, Edwin Locke's [[Goal Theory]] and [[Victor Vroom]]'s [[Expectancy theory]]. These tend to stress cultural differences and the fact that individuals tend to be motivated by different factors at different times.<ref>Weightman, J. (2008) The Employee Motivation Audit: Cambridge Strategy Publications</ref>
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| According to the system of [[scientific management]] developed by [[Frederick Winslow Taylor]], a worker's motivation is solely determined by pay, and therefore management need not consider psychological or social aspects of work. In essence, scientific management bases human motivation wholly on extrinsic rewards and discards the idea of intrinsic rewards.
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| In contrast, [[David McClelland]] believed that workers could not be motivated by the mere need for [[money]]—in fact, extrinsic motivation (e.g., money) could extinguish intrinsic motivation such as achievement motivation, though money could be used as an indicator of success for various motives, e.g., keeping score. In keeping with this view, his consulting firm, McBer & Company, had as its first motto "To make everyone productive, happy, and free." For McClelland, satisfaction lay in aligning a person's life with their fundamental motivations.
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| [[Elton Mayo]] found that the social contacts a worker has at the workplace are very important and that boredom and repetitiveness of tasks lead to reduced motivation. Mayo believed that workers could be motivated by acknowledging their social needs and making them feel important. As a result, employees were given freedom to make decisions on the job and greater attention was paid to informal work groups.
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| Mayo named the model the [[Hawthorne effect]]. His model has been judged as placing undue reliance on social contacts within work situations for motivating employees.<ref>Human Resources Management, HT Graham and R Bennett M+E Handbooks(1993) ISBN 0-7121-0844-0</ref>
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| [[William Ouchi]] introduced [[Theory Z]], a hybrid management approach consisting of both Japanese and American philosophies and cultures.<ref>Barnett, Tim, and Scott B. Droege. "Theory Z." Encyclopedia of Management. Ed. Marilyn M. Helms. 5th ed. Detroit: Gale, 2006. 914-916. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 5 Feb. 2012.</ref> Its Japanese segment is much like the clan culture where organizations focus on a standardized structure with heavy emphasis on socialization of its members. All underlying goals are consistent across the organization. Its American segment retains formality and authority amongst members and the organization. Ultimately, Theory Z promotes common structure and commitment to the organization, as well as constant improvement of work efficacy.
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| In ''Essentials of Organizational Behavior'', Robbins and Judge examine recognition programs as motivators, and identify five principles that contribute to the success of an employee incentive program:<ref>
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| {{Citation |last1=Robbins |first1=Stephen P. |last2=Judge |first2=Timothy A. |year=2007 |title=Essentials of Organizational Behavior |edition=9 |publisher=[[Prentice Hall]] |location=[[Upper Saddle River, NJ]] |url=http://wps.prenhall.com/bp_robbins_eob_9/64/16396/4197506.cw/index.html}}</ref>
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| * Recognition of employees' individual differences, and clear identification of behavior deemed worthy of recognition
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| * Allowing employees to participate
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| * Linking rewards to performance
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| * Rewarding of nominators
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| * Visibility of the recognition process
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| ===Games===
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| Motivational models are central to [[game design]], because without motivation a player will not be interested in progressing further within a [[game]].<ref>Radoff, Jon. April 2011. ''Game On: Energize Your Business with Social Games.'' ISBN 978-0-470-93626-9</ref> Several models for gameplay motivations have been proposed, including [[Bartle Test|Richard Bartle's]]. [[Jon Radoff]] has proposed a four-quadrant model of gameplay motivation that includes cooperation, competition, immersion and achievement.<ref>Radoff, Jon. "Game Player Motivations." May 2011. [http://radoff.com/blog/2011/05/19/game-player-motivations/ radoff.com]</ref> The motivational structure of games is central to the [[gamification]] trend, which seeks to apply game-based motivation to business applications.<ref name="msn">{{cite news|publisher=MSNBC|url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/37451547/ns/technology_and_science-tech_and_gadgets/|title=FarmVille invades the real world|first=Helen|last=Popkin|date=June 1, 2010}}</ref>
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| ==See also==
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| {{columns-list|3|
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| * [[Adaptive performance]]
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| * [[Addiction]]
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| * [[Amotivational syndrome]]
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| * [[Andragogy]]
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| * [[Dopamine]]
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| * [[Equity theory]]
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| * [[Flow (psychology)|Flow]]
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| * [[Goal orientation]]
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| * [[Happiness at work]]
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| * [[Health Action Process Approach]]
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| * [[Hedonic motivation]]
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| * [[Human behavior]]
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| * [[Human Potential Movement]]
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| * [[Humanistic psychology]]
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| * [[I-Change Model]]
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| * [[Incentive program]]
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| * [[Learned industriousness]]
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| * [[Locus of control]]
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| * [[Motivation crowding theory]]
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| * [[Organismic theory]]
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| * [[Organizational behavior]]
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| * [[Personality psychology]]
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| * [[Positive education]]
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| * [[Positive Psychology in the Workplace]]
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| * [[Regulatory Focus Theory]]
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| * [[Self-determination theory]]
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| * [[Self-efficacy]]
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| * [[Sexual motivation and hormones]]
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| * [[Social cycle theory (Sarkar)|Social cycle theory]]
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| * [[Theory Z of Ouchi]]
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| * [[Volition (psychology)|Volition]]
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| * [[Work engagement]]
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| }}
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| ==References==
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| {{reflist|30em}}
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| ==Further reading==
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| {{Sister project links|wikt=motivation|commons=Category:Motivation|n=no}}
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| * {{Citation |last=Baumeister |first=R.F. |last2=Vohs |first2=K.D. |year=2004 |title=Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications |publisher=New York: Guilford Press |page=574 |isbn= 1-57230-991-1 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=7CeE67IrVDUC&dq}}
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| * {{Citation |last=Carver |first=C.S. |last2=Scheier |first2=M.F. |year=2001 |title=On the self-regulation of behavior |publisher=New York: [[Cambridge University Press]] |page=460 |isbn=0-521-00099-8 |url= http://books.google.com/?id=U9xi8wlfWccC&printsec}}
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| * {{Citation |last=Cervone |first=D. |last2=Shadel |first2=W.G. |last3=Smith |first3=Ronald E. |last4=Fiori |first4=Marina |year=2006 |title=Self-Regulation: Reminders and Suggestions from Personality Science |journal=Applied Psychology: an International Review |volume=55 |issue=3 |pages=333–385 |doi=10.1111/j.1464-0597.2006.00261.x |url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118628287/abstract}}
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| *{{Citation |year=1967 |last=Cofer |first=Charles N |last2=Appley |first2=Mortimer H |title=Motivation: Theory and Research |place=New York, London, Sydney |publisher=John Wiley & Sons}}
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| * {{Citation |last=Fishbein |first=M. |last2=Ajzen |first2=I. |year=1975 |title=Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior: An introduction to theory and research |publisher=Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley}}
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| * {{Citation |last=Gollwitzer |first=P.M. |year=1999 |title=Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans |journal=American Psychologist |volume=54 |pages=493–503 |url=http://kops.ub.uni-konstanz.de/volltexte/2008/5559/pdf/99Goll_ImpInt.pdf |doi=10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493 |issue=7}}
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| * {{Citation |last=Jones |first=Ishmael |year=2008 |journal=The Human Factor: Inside the CIA's Dysfunctional Intelligence Culture |publisher=New York: Encounter Books |isbn=978-1-59403-382-7}}
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| * {{Citation |last=Murphy |first=Jim |title=Inner Excellence |publisher=McGraw-Hill |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-07-163504-2}}
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| [[Category:Motivation| ]]
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| [[Category:Human behavior]]
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| [[Category:Experimental psychology]]
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| [[Category:Cognition]]
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