Functional analysis: Difference between revisions
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{{multiple issues |original research=February 2011 |refimprove=November 2011}} | |||
[[File:Black Swans.jpg|thumb|Are all [[swan]]s white?]] | |||
'''Falsifiability''' or '''refutability''' of a [[proposition|statement]], [[hypothesis]], or [[theory]] is an inherent possibility to prove it to be false. A statement is called '''falsifiable''' if it is possible to conceive an observation or an argument which proves the statement in question to be false. In this sense, ''falsify'' is synonymous with ''nullify'', meaning not "to commit fraud" but "show to be false". Some philosophers argue that science must be falsifiable.<ref name="Popper 2005p17">{{cite book| last1 = Popper| first1 = Karl| title = The Logic of Scientific Discovery| edition = Taylor & Francis e-Library| year = 2005| publisher = Routledge / Taylor & Francis e-Library| location = London and New York| isbn = 0203994620| page = 17| url = http://books.google.com.au/books/about/The_Logic_of_Scientific_Discovery.html?id=Yq6xeupNStMC | |||
| quote = The criterion of demarcation inherent in inductive logic—that is, the positivistic dogma of meaning—is equivalent to the requirement that all the statements of empirical science (or all ‘meaningful’ statements) must be capable of being finally decided, with respect to their truth and falsity; we shall say that they must be ‘conclusively decidable’. This means that their form must be such that to verify them and to falsify them must both be logically possible.}}</ref> | |||
For example, by the [[problem of induction]], no number of confirming observations can verify a [[enumerative induction|universal generalization]], such as ''All swans are white'', yet it is logically possible to falsify it by observing a single black swan. Thus, the term ''falsifiability'' is sometimes synonymous to ''testability''. Some statements, such as ''It will be raining here in one million years'', are falsifiable in principle, but not in practice.<ref>{{cite book |first=K. R. |last=Popper |chapter={{lang|de|Zwei Bedeutungen von Falsifizierbarkeit}} [Two meanings of falsifiability] |editor1-first=H. |editor1-last=Seiffert |editor2-first=G. |editor2-last=Radnitzky |title=Handlexikon der Wissenschaftstheorie |publisher=Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag |location=München |year=1994 |pages=82–85 |isbn=3-423-04586-8}}</ref> | |||
The concern with falsifiability gained attention by way of [[philosophy of science|philosopher of science]] [[Karl Raimund Popper|Karl Popper]]'s scientific [[epistemology]] "[[falsificationism]]". Popper stresses the [[demarcation problem|problem of demarcation]]—distinguishing the scientific from the unscientific—and makes ''falsifiability'' the demarcation criterion, such that what is unfalsifiable is classified as [[unscientific]], and the practice of declaring an unfalsifiable theory to be [[scientific method|scientifically]] true is [[pseudoscience]]. This is often epitomized in [[Wolfgang Pauli]] famously saying, of an argument that fails to be scientific because it cannot be falsified by experiment, "it is not only not right, it is [[not even wrong]]!" | |||
==Overview== | |||
The classical view of the philosophy of science is that it is the goal of science to prove [[hypotheses]] like "All swans are white" or to [[inductive reasoning|induce]] them from observational data. Popper argued that this would require the inference of a general rule from a number of individual cases, which is inadmissible in deductive logic.<ref>LScD p. 4</ref> However, if one finds one single black swan, deductive logic admits the conclusion that the statement that all swans are white is false. Falsificationism thus strives for questioning, for falsification, of hypotheses instead of proving them. | |||
For a statement to be questioned using observation, it needs to be at least theoretically possible that it can come in conflict with observation. A key observation of falsificiationism is thus that a criterion of demarcation is needed to distinguish those statements that can come in conflict with observation and those that cannot (Chorlton, 2012). Popper chose falsifiability as the name of this criterion. | |||
{{Quote|text=My proposal is based upon an ''asymmetry'' between [[Formal verification|verifiability]] and falsifiability; an asymmetry which results from the logical form of universal statements. For these are never derivable from singular statements, but can be contradicted by singular statements.|sign=Karl Popper|source=''[[The Logic of Scientific Discovery]]'', [http://books.google.com/books?id=0a5bLBbe_dMC&pg=PA19&dq=%22is+based+upon+an+asymmetry+between+verifiability+and+falsifiability;+an+asymmetry+which+results+from+the+logical+form+of+universal+statements.%22%22For+these+are+never+derivable+from+singular+statements,+but+can+be+contradicted+by+singular+statements%22 p. 19].}} | |||
Popper stressed that unfalsifiable statements are important in science.<ref>''LScD'', p. 16</ref> Contrary to intuition, unfalsifiable statements can be embedded in - and [[logical consequence|deductively entailed]] by - falsifiable theories. For example, while "all men are mortal" is unfalsifiable, it is a [[logical consequence]] of the falsifiable theory that "every man dies before he reaches the age of 150 years".<ref>Keuth: ''The philosophy of Karl Popper'', p. 45</ref> Similarly, the ancient metaphysical and unfalsifiable idea of the existence of atoms has led to corresponding falsifiable modern theories. Popper invented the notion of [[metaphysical research program]]s to name such unfalsifiable ideas.<ref>Quantum theory and the schism in physics, introductory comments</ref> In contrast to [[Positivism]], which held that statements are meaningless if they cannot be verified or falsified, Popper claimed that falsifiability is merely a special case of the more general notion of criticizability, even though he admitted that empirical refutation is one of the most effective methods by which theories can be criticized. Criticizability, in contrast to falsifiability, and thus rationality, may be comprehensive (i.e., have no logical limits), though this claim is controversial even among proponents of Popper's philosophy and critical rationalism. | |||
== Naive falsification{{anchor|Na.C3.AFve}} ==<!-- see [[Karl Popper]] --> | |||
{{Unreferenced section|date=May 2011}} | |||
===Two types of statements: observational and categorical=== | |||
In work beginning in the 1930s, Popper gave falsifiability a renewed emphasis as a criterion of empirical statements in science. | |||
Popper noticed that two types of statements<ref name="Popper 2005p47-50">{{cite book| last1 = Popper | |||
| first1 = Karl| title = The Logic of Scientific Discovery| edition = Taylor & Francis e-Library| year = 2005 | |||
| publisher = Routledge / Taylor & Francis e-Library| location = London and New York| isbn = 0203994620 | |||
| pages = 47–50| url = http://books.google.com.au/books/about/The_Logic_of_Scientific_Discovery.html?id=Yq6xeupNStMC}}</ref> are of particular value to [[scientist]]s. | |||
The first are statements of observations, such as "there is a white swan." Logicians call these statements [[existential quantification|singular existential statements]], since they assert the existence of some particular thing. They are equivalent to a predicate calculus statement of the form: ''There exists an x such that x is a swan, and x is white.'' | |||
The second are statements that categorize all instances of something, such as "all swans are white". Logicians call these statements [[universal quantification|universal]]. They are usually parsed in the form: ''For all x, if x is a swan, then x is white''. [[Physical law|Scientific law]]s are commonly supposed to be of this type. One difficult question in the [[scientific method|methodology of science]] is: How does one move from observations to laws? How can one validly infer a universal statement from any number of existential statements? | |||
[[Inductive reasoning|Inductivist]] methodology supposed that one can somehow move from a series of singular existential statements to a universal statement. That is, that one can move from 'this is a white swan', 'that is a white swan', and so on, to a universal statement such as 'all swans are white.' This method is clearly ''deductively'' invalid, since it is always possible that there may be a non-white swan that has eluded observation (and, in fact, the discovery of the Australian [[black swan]] demonstrated the deductive invalidity of this particular statement). | |||
=== Inductive categorical inference === | |||
Popper held that science could not be grounded on such an invalid inference. He proposed falsification as a solution to the [[problem of induction]]. Popper noticed that although a singular existential statement such as 'there is a white swan' cannot be used to affirm a universal statement, it can be used to show that one is false: the singular existential observation of a black swan serves to show that the universal statement 'all swans are white' is false—in logic this is called ''[[modus tollens]]''. 'There is a black swan' implies 'there is a non-white swan,' which, in turn, implies 'there is something that is a swan and that is not white', hence 'all swans are white' is false, because that is the same as 'there is ''nothing'' that is a swan and that is not white'. | |||
One notices a white swan. From this one can conclude: | |||
:At least one swan is white. | |||
From this, one may wish to conjecture: | |||
:All swans are white. | |||
It is impractical to observe all the swans in the world to verify that they are all white. | |||
Even so, the statement ''all swans are white'' is testable by being falsifiable. For, if in testing many swans, the researcher finds a single [[black swan]], then the statement ''all swans are white'' would be falsified by the counterexample of the single black swan. | |||
==== Deductive falsification ==== | |||
{{unreferenced section|date=November 2011}} | |||
Deductive falsification is different from an absence of [[Verification theory|verification]]. The falsification of statements occurs through ''[[modus tollens]]'', via some observation. Suppose some universal statement ''U'' forbids some [[observation]] ''O'': | |||
:<math>U \rightarrow \neg O</math> | |||
Observation O, however, is made: | |||
:<math>\ \ O</math> | |||
So by ''modus tollens'', | |||
:<math>\neg U</math> | |||
Although the logic of naïve falsification is valid, it is rather limited. Nearly any statement can be made to fit the data, so long as one makes the requisite 'compensatory adjustments'. Popper drew attention to these limitations in ''[[The Logic of Scientific Discovery]]'' in response to criticism from [[Pierre Duhem]]. [[Willard Van Orman Quine|W. V. Quine]] expounded this argument in detail, calling it [[confirmation holism]]. To logically falsify a [[universality (philosophy)|universal]], one must find a true falsifying singular statement. But Popper pointed out that it is always possible to ''change'' the universal statement or the existential statement so that falsification does not occur. On hearing that a black swan has been observed in Australia, one might introduce the ''[[ad hoc]]'' hypothesis, 'all swans are white except those found in Australia'; or one might adopt another, more cynical view about some observers, 'Australian [[ornithology|bird watchers]] are incompetent'. | |||
Thus, naïve falsification ought to, but does not, supply a way of handling competing hypotheses for many subject controversies (for instance [[conspiracy theories]] and [[urban legends]]). People arguing that there is no support for such an observation may argue that there is nothing to see, that all is normal, or that the differences or appearances are too small to be statistically significant. On the other side are those who concede that an observation has occurred and that a universal statement has been falsified as a consequence. Therefore, naïve falsification does not enable scientists, who rely on [[Objectivity (science)|objective]] criteria, to present a definitive falsification of universal statements. | |||
== Falsificationism == | |||
Naïve falsificationism is an unsuccessful attempt to prescribe a rationally unavoidable method for science. Sophisticated methodological falsification, on the other hand, is a prescription of a way in which scientists ought to behave as a matter of choice. The object of this is to arrive at an evolutionary process whereby theories become ''less bad''. | |||
Naïve falsification considers scientific statements individually. Scientific theories are formed from groups of these sorts of statements, and it is these groups that must be accepted or rejected by scientists. Scientific theories can always be defended by the addition of [[ad hoc hypothesis|''ad hoc'' hypotheses]]. As Popper put it, a ''decision'' is required on the part of the scientist to accept or reject the statements that go to make up a theory or that might falsify it. At some point, the weight of the ''ad hoc'' hypotheses and disregarded falsifying observations will become so great that it becomes unreasonable to support the base theory any longer, and a decision will be made to reject it. | |||
In place of naïve falsification, Popper envisioned science as evolving by the successive rejection of falsified theories, rather than falsified statements. Falsified theories are to be replaced by theories that can account for the [[phenomena]] that falsified the prior theory, that is, with greater [[explanatory power]]. For example, [[Aristotle|Aristotelian mechanics]] explained observations of everyday situations, but were falsified by [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]]'s experiments{{citation needed|date=January 2013}}, and were replaced by Newtonian mechanics, which accounted for the phenomena noted by Galileo (and others). [[Newtonian mechanics]]' reach included the observed motion of the planets and the mechanics of gases. The Youngian wave theory of light (i.e., waves carried by the [[luminiferous aether]]) replaced Newton's (and many of the Classical Greeks') particles of light but in turn was falsified by the [[Michelson-Morley experiment]] and was superseded by [[James Clerk Maxwell|Maxwell]]'s electrodynamics and Einstein's [[special relativity]], which did account for the newly observed phenomena. Furthermore, Newtonian mechanics applied to the atomic scale was replaced with [[quantum mechanics]], when the old theory could not provide an answer to the [[ultraviolet catastrophe]], the [[Gibbs paradox]], or how [[Atomic orbital|electron orbits]] could exist without the particles radiating away their energy and spiraling towards the centre. Thus the new theory had to posit the existence of unintuitive concepts such as [[energy levels]], [[quantum|quanta]] and [[Heisenberg's uncertainty principle]]. | |||
At each stage, experimental observation made a theory untenable (i.e., falsified it) and a new theory was found that had greater ''explanatory power'' (i.e., could account for the previously unexplained phenomena), and as a result, ''provided greater opportunity for its own falsification''. | |||
== The criterion of demarcation == | |||
Popper uses falsification as a [[demarcation problem|criterion of demarcation]] to draw a sharp line between those theories that are scientific and those that are unscientific. It is useful to know if a statement or theory is falsifiable, if for no other reason than that it provides us with an understanding of the ways in which one might assess the theory. One might at the least be saved from attempting to falsify a non-falsifiable theory, or come to see an unfalsifiable theory as unsupportable. | |||
Popper claimed that, if a theory is falsifiable, then it is scientific. | |||
The Popperian criterion excludes from the domain of science not unfalsifiable ''statements'' but only ''whole theories'' that ''contain no'' falsifiable statements; thus it leaves us with the [[confirmation holism|Duhemian]] problem of what constitutes a 'whole theory' as well as the problem of what makes a statement 'meaningful'. Popper's own falsificationism, thus, is not only an alternative to verificationism, it is also an acknowledgement of the conceptual distinction that previous theories had ignored. | |||
===Verificationism=== | |||
{{Main|Verificationist}} | |||
{{See also|Abductive reasoning}} | |||
In the [[philosophy of science]], verificationism (also known as the verifiability theory of meaning) holds that a statement must, in principle, be empirically verifiable in order that it be both meaningful and scientific. | |||
This was an essential feature of the [[logical positivism]] of the so-called [[Vienna Circle]] that included such philosophers as [[Moritz Schlick]], [[Rudolf Carnap]], [[Otto Neurath]], the Berlin philosopher [[Hans Reichenbach]], and the [[logical empiricism]] of [[A.J. Ayer]]. | |||
Popper noticed that the philosophers of the Vienna Circle had mixed two different problems, that of meaning and that of demarcation, and had proposed in verificationism a single solution to both. In opposition to this view, Popper emphasized that there are meaningful theories that are not scientific, and that, accordingly, a criterion of meaningfulness does not coincide with a criterion of demarcation. | |||
Thus, Popper urged that verifiability be replaced with falsifiability as the criterion of demarcation. On the other hand, he strictly opposed the view that non-falsifiable statements are meaningless or otherwise inherently bad, and noted that falsificationism does not imply it.<ref>''Logic of Scientific Discovery'', section 6, footnote *3</ref> | |||
===Use in courts of law=== | |||
Judge [[William Overton (judge)|William Overton]] used falsifiability in the [[McLean v. Arkansas]] ruling in 1982 as one of the criteria to determine that "[[creation science]]" was not scientific and should not be taught in [[Arkansas]] [[Public school (government funded)|public school]]s as such (it can be taught as religion). In his conclusion related to this criterion Judge Overton stated that "[w]hile anybody is free to approach a scientific inquiry in any fashion they choose, they cannot properly describe the methodology as scientific, if they start with the conclusion and refuse to change it regardless of the evidence developed during the course of the investigation."<ref name=mclean> | |||
[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/mclean-v-arkansas.html McLean v. Arkansas Board of Education], Decision January 5, 1982.</ref> | |||
[[United States law]] also enshrined falsifiability as part of the [[Daubert Standard]] set by the [[United States Supreme Court]] for whether scientific evidence is admissible in a jury trial. | |||
== Criticisms == | |||
===Contemporary philosophers=== | |||
Adherents of Popper speak with disrespect of "professional philosophy", for example W. W. Bartley: | |||
{{quote|Sir Karl Popper is not really a participant in the contemporary professional philosophical dialogue; quite the contrary, he has ruined that dialogue. If he is on the right track, then the majority of professional philosophers the world over have wasted or are wasting their intellectual careers. The gulf between Popper's way of doing philosophy and that of the bulk of contemporary professional philosophers is as great as that between astronomy and astrology.<ref>W. W. Bartley, III: Biology & evolutionary epistemology. ''Philosophia'' '''6''':3–4 (September–December 1976), pp. 463–494</ref>}} | |||
Rafe Champion: | |||
{{quote|Popper's ideas have failed to convince the majority of professional philosophers because his theory of conjectural knowledge does not even pretend to provide positively justified foundations of belief. Nobody else does better, but they keep trying, like chemists still in search of the [[Philosopher's Stone]] or physicists trying to build [[perpetual motion machines]].<ref>Rafe Champion: [http://www.the-rathouse.com/bartagree.html Agreeing to Disagree: Bartley's Critique of Reason]. ''Melbourne Age Monthly Review'' (October 1985)</ref>}} | |||
and [[David Miller (philosopher)|David Miller]]: | |||
{{quote|What distinguishes science from all other human endeavours is that the accounts of the world that our best, mature sciences deliver are strongly supported by evidence and this evidence gives us the strongest reason to believe them.' That anyway is what is said at the beginning of the advertisement for a recent conference on induction at a celebrated seat of learning in the UK. It shows how much critical rationalists still have to do to make known the message of ''Logik der Forschung'' concerning what empirical evidence is able to do and what it does.<ref>David Miller: Some hard questions for critical rationalism</ref>}} | |||
Nevertheless, many contemporary [[philosophy of science|philosophers of science]] and [[Analytic Philosophy|analytic philosophers]] are strongly critical of Popper's philosophy of science.<ref>Martin Gardner (2001), [http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/gardner_popper.html "A Skeptical Look at Karl Popper,"] Skeptical Inquirer, 25(4): 13-14, 72.</ref> Popper's mistrust of [[inductive reasoning]] has led to claims that he misrepresents scientific practice. Among the professional philosophers of science, the Popperian view has never been seriously preferred to [[Raven paradox#Probabilistic or non probabilistic induction|probabilistic induction]], which is the mainstream account of scientific reasoning.{{citation needed|date=January 2013}} | |||
=== Kuhn and Lakatos === | |||
Whereas Popper was concerned in the main with the ''logic'' of science, [[Thomas Samuel Kuhn|Thomas Kuhn]]'s influential book ''[[The Structure of Scientific Revolutions]]'' examined in detail the [[history of science]]. Kuhn argued that scientists work within a conceptual [[paradigm]] that strongly influences the way in which they see data. Scientists will go to great length to defend their paradigm against falsification, by the addition of ''ad hoc'' hypotheses to existing theories. Changing a 'paradigm' is difficult, as it requires an individual scientist to break with his or her peers and defend a heterodox theory. | |||
Some falsificationists saw Kuhn's work as a vindication, since it provided historical evidence that science progressed by rejecting inadequate theories, and that it is the ''decision'', on the part of the scientist, to accept or reject a theory that is the crucial element of falsificationism. Foremost amongst these was [[Imre Lakatos]]. | |||
Lakatos attempted to explain Kuhn's work by arguing that science progresses by the falsification of ''research programs'' rather than the more specific universal statements of naïve falsification. In Lakatos' approach, a scientist works within a research program that corresponds roughly with Kuhn's 'paradigm'. Whereas Popper rejected the use of ''ad hoc'' hypotheses as unscientific, Lakatos accepted their place in the development of new theories.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lakatos|first=Imre|title=The methodology of scientific research programmes: Philosophical Papers Volume I|year=1978|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=0-521-28031 -1}}</ref> | |||
=== Feyerabend === | |||
[[Paul Feyerabend]] examined the history of science with a more critical eye, and ultimately rejected any prescriptive methodology at all. He rejected Lakatos' argument for ad hoc hypothesis, arguing that science would not have progressed without making use of any and all available methods to support new theories. He rejected any reliance on a scientific method, along with any special authority for science that might derive from such a method. Rather, he claimed that if one is keen to have a universally valid methodological rule, [[epistemological anarchism]] or ''anything goes'' would be the only candidate. For Feyerabend, any special status that science might have derives from the social and physical value of the results of science rather than its method. | |||
===Sokal and Bricmont=== | |||
In their book ''[[Fashionable Nonsense]]'' (published in the UK as ''Intellectual Impostures'') the physicists [[Alan Sokal]] and [[Jean Bricmont]] criticized falsifiability on the grounds that it does not accurately describe the way science really works. They argue that theories are used because of their successes, not because of the failures of other theories. Their discussion of Popper, falsifiability and the philosophy of science comes in a chapter entitled "Intermezzo," which contains an attempt to make clear their own views of what constitutes truth, in contrast with the extreme epistemological relativism of postmodernism. | |||
Sokal and Bricmont write, "When a theory successfully withstands an attempt at falsification, a scientist will, quite naturally, consider the theory to be partially confirmed and will accord it a greater likelihood or a higher subjective probability. ... But Popper will have none of this: throughout his life he was a stubborn opponent of any idea of 'confirmation' of a theory, or even of its 'probability'. ... [but] the history of science teaches us that scientific theories come to be accepted above all because of their successes." (Sokal and Bricmont 1997, 62f) | |||
They further argue that falsifiability cannot distinguish between astrology and astronomy, as both make technical predictions that are sometimes incorrect. | |||
[[David Miller (philosopher)|David Miller]], a contemporary philosopher of critical rationalism, has attempted to defend Popper against these claims.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Miller|first=David|title=Sokal and Bricmont: Back to the Frying Pan|journal=Pli|volume=9|year=2000|pages=156–73|url=http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/philosophy/staff/miller/miller_pli_9.pdf}}, also chapter 6 of {{Cite journal|last=Miller|first=David|title=Out of Error|year=2006|publisher=Ashgate}}</ref> Miller argues that astrology does not lay itself open to falsification, while astronomy does, and this is the litmus test for science. | |||
== Examples == | |||
{{Original research|section|date=September 2007}} | |||
Claims about verifiability and falsifiability have been used to criticize various controversial views. Examining these examples shows the usefulness of falsifiability by showing us where to look when attempting to criticise a theory. | |||
=== Economics === | |||
[[Karl Popper]] argued that [[Marxism]] shifted from falsifiable to unfalsifiable.<ref>:"For Marxism, Popper believed, had been initially scientific, in that Marx had postulated a theory which was genuinely predictive. However, when these predictions were not in fact borne out, the theory was saved from falsification by the addition of ''ad hoc'' hypotheses which made it compatible with the facts. By this means, Popper asserted, a theory which was initially genuinely scientific degenerated into pseudo-scientific dogma." [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/popper/ Karl Popper] at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.</ref> | |||
Some economists, such as those of the [[Austrian School]], believe that [[macroeconomics]] is [[Empiricism|empirically]] unfalsifiable and that thus the only appropriate means to understand economic events is by [[deductive reasoning|logically]] studying [[Subjective theory of value|the intentions]] of [[methodological individualism|individual economic decision-makers]], [[Praxeology#Austrian School approach|based on]] certain fundamental [[Action axiom|truths]].<ref name="econlib">[http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/AustrianSchoolofEconomics.html Austrian School of Economics: The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics | Library of Economics and Liberty<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/methodological-individualism/ Methodological Individualism at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ]</ref><ref name="Mises_Action">Ludwig von Mises. [[Human Action]], p. 11, "r. Purposeful Action and Animal Reaction". Referenced 2011-11-23.</ref> Prominent figures within the Austrian School of economics [[Ludwig von Mises]] and [[Friedrich Hayek]] were associates of Karl Popper's, with whom they co-founded the [[Mont Pelerin Society]]. | |||
===Evolution=== | |||
{{Main|Objections to evolution#Unfalsifiability|l1=Objections to evolution: Unfalsifiability}} | |||
Numerous examples of potential (indirect) ways to falsify common descent have been proposed by its proponents. [[J.B.S. Haldane]], when asked what hypothetical evidence could disprove evolution, replied "[[precambrian rabbit|fossil rabbits in the Precambrian era]]".<ref>{{cite book |title=Evolution, Third Edition |first=M |last=Ridley |publisher=Blackwell Publishing Limited |year=2003 |isbn=1-4051-0345-0}}</ref> [[Richard Dawkins]] adds that any other modern animal, such as a hippo, would suffice.<ref name="The Evolution Wars">{{cite news |last=Wallis |first=C |title=The Evolution Wars |publisher=Time Magazine |date=2005-08-07 |page=32|url=http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,1090909,00.html|accessdate=2007-03-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Richard |last=Dawkins |authorlink=Richard Dawkins |title=[[River Out of Eden]] |publisher=Basic Books |year=1995 |isbn=0-465-06990-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Richard |last=Dawkins |authorlink=Richard Dawkins |title=[[The Blind Watchmaker]] |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. |year=1986 |isbn=0-393-31570-3 }}</ref> | |||
[[Karl Popper]] at first spoke against the testability of natural selection <ref>{{Cite news |last=Lannes |first=Sophie |last2=Alain| first2=Boyer |title=Les chemins de la verite: L'Express va plus loin avec Karl Popper |newspaper=L'Express |date=1982-02-26}}; online German translation {{Cite news |title=Die Wege der Wahrheit. Zum Tode von Karl Popper|periodical=Aufklärung und Kritik |page=38 |date=2/1994 |url=http://www.gkpn.de/popper.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Popper |first=K |year=1985 |title=Unended Quest: An Intellectual Autobiography |publisher=Open Court |isbn=0-08-758343-7}}</ref> but later recanted, "I have changed my mind about the testability and logical status of the theory of natural selection, and I am glad to have the opportunity to make a recantation."<ref name="popper">{{cite journal |last=Popper |first=K |year=1978 |title=Natural selection and the emergence of mind |journal=Dialectica |issue=32 |pages=339–355}}</ref> | |||
=== Historicism === | |||
Theories of [[history]] or politics that allegedly predict future events have a [[logical form]] that renders them neither falsifiable nor verifiable. They claim that for every historically significant event, there exists an historical or economic law that ''determines'' the way in which events proceeded. Failure to identify the law does not mean that it does not exist, yet an event that satisfies the law does not prove the general case. Evaluation of such claims is at best difficult. On this basis, Popper "fundamentally criticized historicism in the sense of any preordained prediction of history",<ref name="popperc">{{cite book | |||
|title=Research training for social scientists: a handbook for postgraduate researchers | |||
|first1=Dawn | |||
|last1=Burton | |||
|publisher=SAGE | |||
|year=2000 | |||
|isbn=0-7619-6351-0 | |||
|pages=12–13 | |||
|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ibePpZ-6lkgC&pg=PA12}}, [http://books.google.com/books?id=ibePpZ-6lkgC&pg=PA12 Chapter 1, p. 12] | |||
</ref> and argued that neither [[Marxism]] nor [[psychoanalysis]] was science,<ref name="popperc" /> although both made such claims. Again, this does not mean that any of these types of theories is necessarily ''incorrect''. Popper considered falsifiability a test of whether theories are scientific, not of whether propositions that they contain or support are true. | |||
=== Mathematics === | |||
Many philosophers{{weasel-inline|date=January 2013}} believe that mathematics is not experimentally falsifiable, and thus not a science according to the definition of [[Karl Popper]].<ref>{{cite book | title = Out of Their Minds: The Lives and Discoveries of 15 Great Computer Scientists | author = Shasha, Dennis Elliot; Lazere, Cathy A. | publisher = Springer | year = 1998 | page = 228}}</ref> However, in the 1930s [[Gödel's incompleteness theorems]] proved that there does not exist a set of [[axioms]] for mathematics which is both complete and consistent. Karl Popper concluded that "most mathematical theories are, like those of [[physics]] and [[biology]], [[hypothesis|hypothetico]]-[[deductive]]: pure mathematics therefore turns out to be much closer to the natural sciences whose hypotheses are conjectures, than it seemed even recently."<ref>Popper 1995, p. 56</ref> Other thinkers, notably [[Imre Lakatos]], have applied a version of [[falsificationism]] to mathematics itself. | |||
Like all [[formal science]]s, mathematics is not concerned with the validity of theories based on observations in the [[Empiricism|empirical]] world, but rather, mathematics is occupied with the theoretical, abstract study of such topics as [[quantity]], [[structure]], [[space]] and [[Calculus|change]]. Methods of the mathematical sciences are, however, applied in constructing and testing scientific models dealing with observable [[reality]]. [[Albert Einstein]] wrote, "One reason why mathematics enjoys special esteem, above all other sciences, is that its laws are absolutely certain and indisputable, while those of other sciences are to some extent debatable and in constant danger of being overthrown by newly discovered facts.”<ref>{{cite book |author=Albert Einstein |authorlink=Albert Einstein |title=Sidelights on relativity |chapter=Geometry and Experience |page=27 |publisher=Courier Dover Publications |year=1923}} Reprinted by Dover (2010), ISBN 978-0-486-24511-9.</ref> | |||
{{See also|Mathematical proof|Scientific method#Relationship with mathematics|l2=Scientific method and mathematics|Mathematics#Mathematics as science|l3=Mathematics as science|Philosophy of mathematics#Popper's "two senses" theory|l4=Popper's "two senses" theory}} | |||
==Quotations== | |||
* Albert Einstein is reported to have said: ''No amount of experimentation can ever prove me right; a single experiment can prove me wrong.'' (paraphrased)<ref>{{cite book | last = Calaprice | first = Alice | title = The New Quotable Einstein | publisher = Princeton University Press and Hebrew University of Jerusalem | year = 2005 | location = USA | page = 291 | isbn = 0-691-12074-9 }}Calaprice denotes this not as an exact quotation, but as a paraphrase of a translation of A. Einstein's "Induction and Deduction". ''Collected Papers of Albert Einstein'' Vol. 7, Document 28. ''The Berlin Years: Writings, 1918–1921''. A. Einstein; M. Janssen, R. Schulmann, et al., eds.</ref><ref>{{cite book | |||
|title=The Five Biggest Ideas in Science | |||
|first1=Charles M. | |||
|last1=Wynn | |||
|first2=Arthur W. | |||
|last2=Wiggins | |||
|first3=Sidney | |||
|last3=Harris | |||
|publisher=John Wiley and Sons | |||
|year=1997 | |||
|isbn=0-471-13812-6 | |||
|page=107 | |||
|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=C_O8QgAACAAJ}} | |||
</ref><ref>{{cite book | |||
|title=Meeting the standards in primary science: a guide to the ITT NC | |||
|first1=Lynn D. | |||
|last1=Newton | |||
|publisher=Routledge | |||
|year=2000 | |||
|isbn=0-7507-0991-X | |||
|page=21 | |||
|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=JLBrL3WALTQC}}, [http://books.google.com/books?id=JLBrL3WALTQC&pg=PA21 Chapter , p. 21] | |||
</ref> | |||
* ''The criterion of the scientific status of a theory is its falsifiability, or refutability, or testability.'' — [[Karl Popper]], (Popper, CR, 36){{elucidate|date=November 2012}} | |||
==See also== | |||
{{div col}} | |||
* [[Closed circle]] | |||
* [[Cognitive bias]] | |||
* [[Contingency]] | |||
* [[Defeasible reasoning]] | |||
* [[Demarcation problem]] | |||
* [[Duhem–Quine thesis]] | |||
* [[Fallibilism]] | |||
* [[Fallacy]] ([[informal logic]] and [[rhetoric]]) | |||
* [[False (logic)]] | |||
* [[Hypothetico-deductive model]] | |||
* [[Inquiry]] | |||
* [[Logical positivism]] | |||
* [[Metaphysical solipsism]] | |||
* [[Methodological solipsism]] | |||
* [[Not even wrong]] | |||
* [[Occam's razor]] | |||
* [[Philosophy of mathematics]] | |||
* [[Philosophy of science]] | |||
* [[Pragmatic maxim]] | |||
* [[Precambrian rabbit]] | |||
* [[Predictive power]] | |||
* [[Reproducibility]] | |||
* [[Scientific method]] | |||
* [[Superseded scientific theory]] | |||
* [[Tautology (logic)|Tautology]] | |||
* [[Testability]] | |||
* [[Theory-ladenness]] | |||
{{div col end}} | |||
==Notes== | |||
{{Reflist|30em}} | |||
==References== | |||
{{Refbegin}} | |||
* Angeles, Peter A. (1992), ''Harper Collins Dictionary of Philosophy'', 2nd edition, Harper Perennial, New York, NY. ISBN 0-06-461026-8. | |||
* Feyerabend, Paul K., ''[[Against Method]]: Outline of an Anarchistic Theory of Knowledge'', Humanities Press, London, UK, 1975. Reprinted, Verso, London, UK, 1978. | |||
* Kuhn, Thomas S., ''[[The Structure of Scientific Revolutions]]'', University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, 1962. 2nd edition 1970. 3rd edition 1996. | |||
* Lakatos, Imre. (1970), "Falsification and the Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes," in [[Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge]], vol. 4. Imre Lakatos and Alan Musgrave (eds.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. | |||
* Lakatos, Imre (1978), ''The methodology of scientific research programmes: Philosophical papers, volume I.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-28031 -1. | |||
* Peirce, C.S., "Lectures on Pragmatism", Cambridge, MA, March 26 – May 17, 1903. Reprinted in part, ''Collected Papers'', CP 5.14–212. Published in full with editor's introduction and commentary, Patricia Ann Turisi (ed.), ''Pragmatism as a Principle and Method of Right Thinking: The 1903 Harvard "Lectures on Pragmatism"'', State University of New York Press, Albany, NY, 1997. Reprinted, pp. 133–241, Peirce Edition Project (eds.), ''The Essential Peirce, Selected Philosophical Writings, Volume 2 (1893–1913)'', Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1998. | |||
* Popper, Karl, ''[[The Logic of Scientific Discovery]]'', Basic Books, New York, NY, 1959. | |||
* Popper, Karl, ''[[Conjectures and Refutations]]'', Routledge, London, 1963. | |||
* [[Dagobert D. Runes|Runes, Dagobert D.]] (ed.), ''Dictionary of Philosophy'', Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ, 1962. | |||
* Sokal, Alan, and Bricmont, Jean, ''[[Fashionable Nonsense]]'', Picador, New York, NY, 1998. | |||
* Theobald, D.L. (2006). [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/comdesc/default.html#evidence 29+ Evidences for Macroevolution: The Scientific Case for Common Descent.] ''The Talk.Origins Archive''. Version 2.87. | |||
* Wood, Ledger (1962), "Solipsism", p. 295 in Runes (ed.), ''Dictionary of Philosophy'', Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ. | |||
{{Refend}} | |||
== External links == | |||
{{Wiktionary}} | |||
* [http://www.galilean-library.org/falsificationism.html Problems with Falsificationism] at The Galilean Library | |||
{{philosophy of science}} | |||
{{Karl Popper}} | |||
{{Positivism}} | |||
[[Category:Analytic philosophy]] | |||
[[Category:Epistemology of science]] | |||
[[Category:Epistemological theories]] | |||
[[Category:Karl Popper]] | |||
[[Category:Razors (philosophy)]] | |||
Revision as of 18:10, 15 January 2014
Falsifiability or refutability of a statement, hypothesis, or theory is an inherent possibility to prove it to be false. A statement is called falsifiable if it is possible to conceive an observation or an argument which proves the statement in question to be false. In this sense, falsify is synonymous with nullify, meaning not "to commit fraud" but "show to be false". Some philosophers argue that science must be falsifiable.[1]
For example, by the problem of induction, no number of confirming observations can verify a universal generalization, such as All swans are white, yet it is logically possible to falsify it by observing a single black swan. Thus, the term falsifiability is sometimes synonymous to testability. Some statements, such as It will be raining here in one million years, are falsifiable in principle, but not in practice.[2]
The concern with falsifiability gained attention by way of philosopher of science Karl Popper's scientific epistemology "falsificationism". Popper stresses the problem of demarcation—distinguishing the scientific from the unscientific—and makes falsifiability the demarcation criterion, such that what is unfalsifiable is classified as unscientific, and the practice of declaring an unfalsifiable theory to be scientifically true is pseudoscience. This is often epitomized in Wolfgang Pauli famously saying, of an argument that fails to be scientific because it cannot be falsified by experiment, "it is not only not right, it is not even wrong!"
Overview
The classical view of the philosophy of science is that it is the goal of science to prove hypotheses like "All swans are white" or to induce them from observational data. Popper argued that this would require the inference of a general rule from a number of individual cases, which is inadmissible in deductive logic.[3] However, if one finds one single black swan, deductive logic admits the conclusion that the statement that all swans are white is false. Falsificationism thus strives for questioning, for falsification, of hypotheses instead of proving them.
For a statement to be questioned using observation, it needs to be at least theoretically possible that it can come in conflict with observation. A key observation of falsificiationism is thus that a criterion of demarcation is needed to distinguish those statements that can come in conflict with observation and those that cannot (Chorlton, 2012). Popper chose falsifiability as the name of this criterion. 31 year-old Systems Analyst Bud from Deep River, spends time with pursuits for instance r/c cars, property developers new condo in singapore singapore and books. Last month just traveled to Orkhon Valley Cultural Landscape. Popper stressed that unfalsifiable statements are important in science.[4] Contrary to intuition, unfalsifiable statements can be embedded in - and deductively entailed by - falsifiable theories. For example, while "all men are mortal" is unfalsifiable, it is a logical consequence of the falsifiable theory that "every man dies before he reaches the age of 150 years".[5] Similarly, the ancient metaphysical and unfalsifiable idea of the existence of atoms has led to corresponding falsifiable modern theories. Popper invented the notion of metaphysical research programs to name such unfalsifiable ideas.[6] In contrast to Positivism, which held that statements are meaningless if they cannot be verified or falsified, Popper claimed that falsifiability is merely a special case of the more general notion of criticizability, even though he admitted that empirical refutation is one of the most effective methods by which theories can be criticized. Criticizability, in contrast to falsifiability, and thus rationality, may be comprehensive (i.e., have no logical limits), though this claim is controversial even among proponents of Popper's philosophy and critical rationalism.
Naive falsification<Na.C3.AFve>...</Na.C3.AFve>
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Two types of statements: observational and categorical
In work beginning in the 1930s, Popper gave falsifiability a renewed emphasis as a criterion of empirical statements in science.
Popper noticed that two types of statements[7] are of particular value to scientists.
The first are statements of observations, such as "there is a white swan." Logicians call these statements singular existential statements, since they assert the existence of some particular thing. They are equivalent to a predicate calculus statement of the form: There exists an x such that x is a swan, and x is white.
The second are statements that categorize all instances of something, such as "all swans are white". Logicians call these statements universal. They are usually parsed in the form: For all x, if x is a swan, then x is white. Scientific laws are commonly supposed to be of this type. One difficult question in the methodology of science is: How does one move from observations to laws? How can one validly infer a universal statement from any number of existential statements?
Inductivist methodology supposed that one can somehow move from a series of singular existential statements to a universal statement. That is, that one can move from 'this is a white swan', 'that is a white swan', and so on, to a universal statement such as 'all swans are white.' This method is clearly deductively invalid, since it is always possible that there may be a non-white swan that has eluded observation (and, in fact, the discovery of the Australian black swan demonstrated the deductive invalidity of this particular statement).
Inductive categorical inference
Popper held that science could not be grounded on such an invalid inference. He proposed falsification as a solution to the problem of induction. Popper noticed that although a singular existential statement such as 'there is a white swan' cannot be used to affirm a universal statement, it can be used to show that one is false: the singular existential observation of a black swan serves to show that the universal statement 'all swans are white' is false—in logic this is called modus tollens. 'There is a black swan' implies 'there is a non-white swan,' which, in turn, implies 'there is something that is a swan and that is not white', hence 'all swans are white' is false, because that is the same as 'there is nothing that is a swan and that is not white'.
One notices a white swan. From this one can conclude:
- At least one swan is white.
From this, one may wish to conjecture:
- All swans are white.
It is impractical to observe all the swans in the world to verify that they are all white.
Even so, the statement all swans are white is testable by being falsifiable. For, if in testing many swans, the researcher finds a single black swan, then the statement all swans are white would be falsified by the counterexample of the single black swan.
Deductive falsification
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Deductive falsification is different from an absence of verification. The falsification of statements occurs through modus tollens, via some observation. Suppose some universal statement U forbids some observation O:
Observation O, however, is made:
So by modus tollens,
Although the logic of naïve falsification is valid, it is rather limited. Nearly any statement can be made to fit the data, so long as one makes the requisite 'compensatory adjustments'. Popper drew attention to these limitations in The Logic of Scientific Discovery in response to criticism from Pierre Duhem. W. V. Quine expounded this argument in detail, calling it confirmation holism. To logically falsify a universal, one must find a true falsifying singular statement. But Popper pointed out that it is always possible to change the universal statement or the existential statement so that falsification does not occur. On hearing that a black swan has been observed in Australia, one might introduce the ad hoc hypothesis, 'all swans are white except those found in Australia'; or one might adopt another, more cynical view about some observers, 'Australian bird watchers are incompetent'.
Thus, naïve falsification ought to, but does not, supply a way of handling competing hypotheses for many subject controversies (for instance conspiracy theories and urban legends). People arguing that there is no support for such an observation may argue that there is nothing to see, that all is normal, or that the differences or appearances are too small to be statistically significant. On the other side are those who concede that an observation has occurred and that a universal statement has been falsified as a consequence. Therefore, naïve falsification does not enable scientists, who rely on objective criteria, to present a definitive falsification of universal statements.
Falsificationism
Naïve falsificationism is an unsuccessful attempt to prescribe a rationally unavoidable method for science. Sophisticated methodological falsification, on the other hand, is a prescription of a way in which scientists ought to behave as a matter of choice. The object of this is to arrive at an evolutionary process whereby theories become less bad.
Naïve falsification considers scientific statements individually. Scientific theories are formed from groups of these sorts of statements, and it is these groups that must be accepted or rejected by scientists. Scientific theories can always be defended by the addition of ad hoc hypotheses. As Popper put it, a decision is required on the part of the scientist to accept or reject the statements that go to make up a theory or that might falsify it. At some point, the weight of the ad hoc hypotheses and disregarded falsifying observations will become so great that it becomes unreasonable to support the base theory any longer, and a decision will be made to reject it.
In place of naïve falsification, Popper envisioned science as evolving by the successive rejection of falsified theories, rather than falsified statements. Falsified theories are to be replaced by theories that can account for the phenomena that falsified the prior theory, that is, with greater explanatory power. For example, Aristotelian mechanics explained observations of everyday situations, but were falsified by Galileo's experimentsPotter or Ceramic Artist Truman Bedell from Rexton, has interests which include ceramics, best property developers in singapore developers in singapore and scrabble. Was especially enthused after visiting Alejandro de Humboldt National Park., and were replaced by Newtonian mechanics, which accounted for the phenomena noted by Galileo (and others). Newtonian mechanics' reach included the observed motion of the planets and the mechanics of gases. The Youngian wave theory of light (i.e., waves carried by the luminiferous aether) replaced Newton's (and many of the Classical Greeks') particles of light but in turn was falsified by the Michelson-Morley experiment and was superseded by Maxwell's electrodynamics and Einstein's special relativity, which did account for the newly observed phenomena. Furthermore, Newtonian mechanics applied to the atomic scale was replaced with quantum mechanics, when the old theory could not provide an answer to the ultraviolet catastrophe, the Gibbs paradox, or how electron orbits could exist without the particles radiating away their energy and spiraling towards the centre. Thus the new theory had to posit the existence of unintuitive concepts such as energy levels, quanta and Heisenberg's uncertainty principle.
At each stage, experimental observation made a theory untenable (i.e., falsified it) and a new theory was found that had greater explanatory power (i.e., could account for the previously unexplained phenomena), and as a result, provided greater opportunity for its own falsification.
The criterion of demarcation
Popper uses falsification as a criterion of demarcation to draw a sharp line between those theories that are scientific and those that are unscientific. It is useful to know if a statement or theory is falsifiable, if for no other reason than that it provides us with an understanding of the ways in which one might assess the theory. One might at the least be saved from attempting to falsify a non-falsifiable theory, or come to see an unfalsifiable theory as unsupportable.
Popper claimed that, if a theory is falsifiable, then it is scientific.
The Popperian criterion excludes from the domain of science not unfalsifiable statements but only whole theories that contain no falsifiable statements; thus it leaves us with the Duhemian problem of what constitutes a 'whole theory' as well as the problem of what makes a statement 'meaningful'. Popper's own falsificationism, thus, is not only an alternative to verificationism, it is also an acknowledgement of the conceptual distinction that previous theories had ignored.
Verificationism
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In the philosophy of science, verificationism (also known as the verifiability theory of meaning) holds that a statement must, in principle, be empirically verifiable in order that it be both meaningful and scientific. This was an essential feature of the logical positivism of the so-called Vienna Circle that included such philosophers as Moritz Schlick, Rudolf Carnap, Otto Neurath, the Berlin philosopher Hans Reichenbach, and the logical empiricism of A.J. Ayer.
Popper noticed that the philosophers of the Vienna Circle had mixed two different problems, that of meaning and that of demarcation, and had proposed in verificationism a single solution to both. In opposition to this view, Popper emphasized that there are meaningful theories that are not scientific, and that, accordingly, a criterion of meaningfulness does not coincide with a criterion of demarcation.
Thus, Popper urged that verifiability be replaced with falsifiability as the criterion of demarcation. On the other hand, he strictly opposed the view that non-falsifiable statements are meaningless or otherwise inherently bad, and noted that falsificationism does not imply it.[8]
Use in courts of law
Judge William Overton used falsifiability in the McLean v. Arkansas ruling in 1982 as one of the criteria to determine that "creation science" was not scientific and should not be taught in Arkansas public schools as such (it can be taught as religion). In his conclusion related to this criterion Judge Overton stated that "[w]hile anybody is free to approach a scientific inquiry in any fashion they choose, they cannot properly describe the methodology as scientific, if they start with the conclusion and refuse to change it regardless of the evidence developed during the course of the investigation."[9]
United States law also enshrined falsifiability as part of the Daubert Standard set by the United States Supreme Court for whether scientific evidence is admissible in a jury trial.
Criticisms
Contemporary philosophers
Adherents of Popper speak with disrespect of "professional philosophy", for example W. W. Bartley: 31 year-old Systems Analyst Bud from Deep River, spends time with pursuits for instance r/c cars, property developers new condo in singapore singapore and books. Last month just traveled to Orkhon Valley Cultural Landscape. Rafe Champion: 31 year-old Systems Analyst Bud from Deep River, spends time with pursuits for instance r/c cars, property developers new condo in singapore singapore and books. Last month just traveled to Orkhon Valley Cultural Landscape. and David Miller: 31 year-old Systems Analyst Bud from Deep River, spends time with pursuits for instance r/c cars, property developers new condo in singapore singapore and books. Last month just traveled to Orkhon Valley Cultural Landscape.
Nevertheless, many contemporary philosophers of science and analytic philosophers are strongly critical of Popper's philosophy of science.[10] Popper's mistrust of inductive reasoning has led to claims that he misrepresents scientific practice. Among the professional philosophers of science, the Popperian view has never been seriously preferred to probabilistic induction, which is the mainstream account of scientific reasoning.Potter or Ceramic Artist Truman Bedell from Rexton, has interests which include ceramics, best property developers in singapore developers in singapore and scrabble. Was especially enthused after visiting Alejandro de Humboldt National Park.
Kuhn and Lakatos
Whereas Popper was concerned in the main with the logic of science, Thomas Kuhn's influential book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions examined in detail the history of science. Kuhn argued that scientists work within a conceptual paradigm that strongly influences the way in which they see data. Scientists will go to great length to defend their paradigm against falsification, by the addition of ad hoc hypotheses to existing theories. Changing a 'paradigm' is difficult, as it requires an individual scientist to break with his or her peers and defend a heterodox theory.
Some falsificationists saw Kuhn's work as a vindication, since it provided historical evidence that science progressed by rejecting inadequate theories, and that it is the decision, on the part of the scientist, to accept or reject a theory that is the crucial element of falsificationism. Foremost amongst these was Imre Lakatos.
Lakatos attempted to explain Kuhn's work by arguing that science progresses by the falsification of research programs rather than the more specific universal statements of naïve falsification. In Lakatos' approach, a scientist works within a research program that corresponds roughly with Kuhn's 'paradigm'. Whereas Popper rejected the use of ad hoc hypotheses as unscientific, Lakatos accepted their place in the development of new theories.[11]
Feyerabend
Paul Feyerabend examined the history of science with a more critical eye, and ultimately rejected any prescriptive methodology at all. He rejected Lakatos' argument for ad hoc hypothesis, arguing that science would not have progressed without making use of any and all available methods to support new theories. He rejected any reliance on a scientific method, along with any special authority for science that might derive from such a method. Rather, he claimed that if one is keen to have a universally valid methodological rule, epistemological anarchism or anything goes would be the only candidate. For Feyerabend, any special status that science might have derives from the social and physical value of the results of science rather than its method.
Sokal and Bricmont
In their book Fashionable Nonsense (published in the UK as Intellectual Impostures) the physicists Alan Sokal and Jean Bricmont criticized falsifiability on the grounds that it does not accurately describe the way science really works. They argue that theories are used because of their successes, not because of the failures of other theories. Their discussion of Popper, falsifiability and the philosophy of science comes in a chapter entitled "Intermezzo," which contains an attempt to make clear their own views of what constitutes truth, in contrast with the extreme epistemological relativism of postmodernism.
Sokal and Bricmont write, "When a theory successfully withstands an attempt at falsification, a scientist will, quite naturally, consider the theory to be partially confirmed and will accord it a greater likelihood or a higher subjective probability. ... But Popper will have none of this: throughout his life he was a stubborn opponent of any idea of 'confirmation' of a theory, or even of its 'probability'. ... [but] the history of science teaches us that scientific theories come to be accepted above all because of their successes." (Sokal and Bricmont 1997, 62f)
They further argue that falsifiability cannot distinguish between astrology and astronomy, as both make technical predictions that are sometimes incorrect.
David Miller, a contemporary philosopher of critical rationalism, has attempted to defend Popper against these claims.[12] Miller argues that astrology does not lay itself open to falsification, while astronomy does, and this is the litmus test for science.
Examples
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If you go with the Infant Plan (this is the strategy I have) or Business Strategy, you can host as numerous websites on as numerous domain names as you like. This is where making use of a hosting service like HostGator can conserve you a lot of cash in the long run against making use of a website builder or having a website designer host your websites. When you utilize a website builder or have a website designer host your site, you'll normally pay additional for each extra site (or each added set of websites).
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Domain registration.
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Email accounts.
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Video tutorials.
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1 Criticism of HostGator.
I needed to call HostGator to verify my account upon opening it. This didn't take long, but it was an extra action. I would have chosen just to sign up and get going without having to call them for confirmation.
Claims about verifiability and falsifiability have been used to criticize various controversial views. Examining these examples shows the usefulness of falsifiability by showing us where to look when attempting to criticise a theory.
Economics
Karl Popper argued that Marxism shifted from falsifiable to unfalsifiable.[13]
Some economists, such as those of the Austrian School, believe that macroeconomics is empirically unfalsifiable and that thus the only appropriate means to understand economic events is by logically studying the intentions of individual economic decision-makers, based on certain fundamental truths.[14][15][16] Prominent figures within the Austrian School of economics Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek were associates of Karl Popper's, with whom they co-founded the Mont Pelerin Society.
Evolution
Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church. Numerous examples of potential (indirect) ways to falsify common descent have been proposed by its proponents. J.B.S. Haldane, when asked what hypothetical evidence could disprove evolution, replied "fossil rabbits in the Precambrian era".[17] Richard Dawkins adds that any other modern animal, such as a hippo, would suffice.[18][19][20]
Karl Popper at first spoke against the testability of natural selection [21][22] but later recanted, "I have changed my mind about the testability and logical status of the theory of natural selection, and I am glad to have the opportunity to make a recantation."[23]
Historicism
Theories of history or politics that allegedly predict future events have a logical form that renders them neither falsifiable nor verifiable. They claim that for every historically significant event, there exists an historical or economic law that determines the way in which events proceeded. Failure to identify the law does not mean that it does not exist, yet an event that satisfies the law does not prove the general case. Evaluation of such claims is at best difficult. On this basis, Popper "fundamentally criticized historicism in the sense of any preordained prediction of history",[24] and argued that neither Marxism nor psychoanalysis was science,[24] although both made such claims. Again, this does not mean that any of these types of theories is necessarily incorrect. Popper considered falsifiability a test of whether theories are scientific, not of whether propositions that they contain or support are true.
Mathematics
Many philosophersTemplate:Weasel-inline believe that mathematics is not experimentally falsifiable, and thus not a science according to the definition of Karl Popper.[25] However, in the 1930s Gödel's incompleteness theorems proved that there does not exist a set of axioms for mathematics which is both complete and consistent. Karl Popper concluded that "most mathematical theories are, like those of physics and biology, hypothetico-deductive: pure mathematics therefore turns out to be much closer to the natural sciences whose hypotheses are conjectures, than it seemed even recently."[26] Other thinkers, notably Imre Lakatos, have applied a version of falsificationism to mathematics itself.
Like all formal sciences, mathematics is not concerned with the validity of theories based on observations in the empirical world, but rather, mathematics is occupied with the theoretical, abstract study of such topics as quantity, structure, space and change. Methods of the mathematical sciences are, however, applied in constructing and testing scientific models dealing with observable reality. Albert Einstein wrote, "One reason why mathematics enjoys special esteem, above all other sciences, is that its laws are absolutely certain and indisputable, while those of other sciences are to some extent debatable and in constant danger of being overthrown by newly discovered facts.”[27]
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Singapore has been beckoning to traders ever since the value of properties in Singapore started sky rocketing just a few years again. Many businesses have their places of work in Singapore and prefer to own their own workplace area within the country once they decide to have a everlasting office. Rentals in Singapore in the corporate sector can make sense for some time until a business has discovered a agency footing. Finding Commercial Property Singapore takes a variety of time and effort but might be very rewarding in the long term.
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In 12 months 2013, c ommercial retails, shoebox residences and mass market properties continued to be the celebrities of the property market. Models are snapped up in report time and at document breaking prices. Builders are having fun with overwhelming demand and patrons need more. We feel that these segments of the property market are booming is a repercussion of the property cooling measures no.6 and no. 7. With additional buyer's stamp responsibility imposed on residential properties, buyers change their focus to commercial and industrial properties. I imagine every property purchasers need their property funding to understand in value.
Quotations
- Albert Einstein is reported to have said: No amount of experimentation can ever prove me right; a single experiment can prove me wrong. (paraphrased)[28][29][30]
- The criterion of the scientific status of a theory is its falsifiability, or refutability, or testability. — Karl Popper, (Popper, CR, 36)Template:Elucidate
See also
Organisational Psychologist Alfonzo Lester from Timmins, enjoys pinochle, property developers in new launch singapore property and textiles. Gets motivation through travel and just spent 7 days at Alejandro de Humboldt National Park.
- Closed circle
- Cognitive bias
- Contingency
- Defeasible reasoning
- Demarcation problem
- Duhem–Quine thesis
- Fallibilism
- Fallacy (informal logic and rhetoric)
- False (logic)
- Hypothetico-deductive model
- Inquiry
- Logical positivism
- Metaphysical solipsism
- Methodological solipsism
- Not even wrong
- Occam's razor
- Philosophy of mathematics
- Philosophy of science
- Pragmatic maxim
- Precambrian rabbit
- Predictive power
- Reproducibility
- Scientific method
- Superseded scientific theory
- Tautology
- Testability
- Theory-ladenness
42 year-old Environmental Consultant Merle Eure from Hudson, really loves snowboarding, property developers in new launch ec singapore and cosplay. Maintains a trip blog and has lots to write about after visiting Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (formerly Victoria Terminus).
Notes
43 year old Petroleum Engineer Harry from Deep River, usually spends time with hobbies and interests like renting movies, property developers in singapore new condominium and vehicle racing. Constantly enjoys going to destinations like Camino Real de Tierra Adentro.
References
- Angeles, Peter A. (1992), Harper Collins Dictionary of Philosophy, 2nd edition, Harper Perennial, New York, NY. ISBN 0-06-461026-8.
- Feyerabend, Paul K., Against Method: Outline of an Anarchistic Theory of Knowledge, Humanities Press, London, UK, 1975. Reprinted, Verso, London, UK, 1978.
- Kuhn, Thomas S., The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, 1962. 2nd edition 1970. 3rd edition 1996.
- Lakatos, Imre. (1970), "Falsification and the Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes," in Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge, vol. 4. Imre Lakatos and Alan Musgrave (eds.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
- Lakatos, Imre (1978), The methodology of scientific research programmes: Philosophical papers, volume I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-28031 -1.
- Peirce, C.S., "Lectures on Pragmatism", Cambridge, MA, March 26 – May 17, 1903. Reprinted in part, Collected Papers, CP 5.14–212. Published in full with editor's introduction and commentary, Patricia Ann Turisi (ed.), Pragmatism as a Principle and Method of Right Thinking: The 1903 Harvard "Lectures on Pragmatism", State University of New York Press, Albany, NY, 1997. Reprinted, pp. 133–241, Peirce Edition Project (eds.), The Essential Peirce, Selected Philosophical Writings, Volume 2 (1893–1913), Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1998.
- Popper, Karl, The Logic of Scientific Discovery, Basic Books, New York, NY, 1959.
- Popper, Karl, Conjectures and Refutations, Routledge, London, 1963.
- Runes, Dagobert D. (ed.), Dictionary of Philosophy, Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ, 1962.
- Sokal, Alan, and Bricmont, Jean, Fashionable Nonsense, Picador, New York, NY, 1998.
- Theobald, D.L. (2006). 29+ Evidences for Macroevolution: The Scientific Case for Common Descent. The Talk.Origins Archive. Version 2.87.
- Wood, Ledger (1962), "Solipsism", p. 295 in Runes (ed.), Dictionary of Philosophy, Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ.
External links
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Firstly, a Fraudulent Misrepresentation is one that is made knowingly by the Representor that it was false or if it was made without belief in its fact or made recklessly without concerning whether or not it is true or false. For instance estate agent A told the potential consumers that the tenure of a landed property they are considering is freehold when it is really one with a ninety nine-yr leasehold! A is responsible of constructing a fraudulent misrepresentation if he is aware of that the tenure is the truth is a ninety nine-yr leasehold instead of it being freehold or he didn't consider that the tenure of the house was freehold or he had made the assertion with out caring whether or not the tenure of the topic property is in fact freehold.
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Notice that the application must be submitted by the appointed Key Government Officer (KEO) such as the CEO, COO, or MD. Once the KEO has submitted the mandatory paperwork and assuming all documents are in order, an email notification shall be sent stating that the applying is permitted. No hardcopy of the license might be issued. A delicate-copy could be downloaded and printed by logging into the CEA website. It takes roughly four-6 weeks to course of an utility.
- Problems with Falsificationism at The Galilean Library
Template:Philosophy of science Template:Karl Popper Template:Positivism
- ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534 - ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534 - ↑ LScD p. 4
- ↑ LScD, p. 16
- ↑ Keuth: The philosophy of Karl Popper, p. 45
- ↑ Quantum theory and the schism in physics, introductory comments
- ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534 - ↑ Logic of Scientific Discovery, section 6, footnote *3
- ↑ McLean v. Arkansas Board of Education, Decision January 5, 1982.
- ↑ Martin Gardner (2001), "A Skeptical Look at Karl Popper," Skeptical Inquirer, 25(4): 13-14, 72.
- ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534 - ↑ One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting
In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang
Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules
Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.
A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running
The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more
There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang, also chapter 6 of One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting
In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang
Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules
Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.
A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running
The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more
There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang - ↑ :"For Marxism, Popper believed, had been initially scientific, in that Marx had postulated a theory which was genuinely predictive. However, when these predictions were not in fact borne out, the theory was saved from falsification by the addition of ad hoc hypotheses which made it compatible with the facts. By this means, Popper asserted, a theory which was initially genuinely scientific degenerated into pseudo-scientific dogma." Karl Popper at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
- ↑ Austrian School of Economics: The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics | Library of Economics and Liberty
- ↑ Methodological Individualism at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- ↑ Ludwig von Mises. Human Action, p. 11, "r. Purposeful Action and Animal Reaction". Referenced 2011-11-23.
- ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534 - ↑ Template:Cite news
- ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534 - ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534 - ↑ Template:Cite news; online German translation Template:Cite news
- ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534 - ↑ One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting
In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang
Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules
Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.
A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running
The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more
There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang - ↑ 24.0 24.1 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534, Chapter 1, p. 12 - ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534 - ↑ Popper 1995, p. 56
- ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534 Reprinted by Dover (2010), ISBN 978-0-486-24511-9. - ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534Calaprice denotes this not as an exact quotation, but as a paraphrase of a translation of A. Einstein's "Induction and Deduction". Collected Papers of Albert Einstein Vol. 7, Document 28. The Berlin Years: Writings, 1918–1921. A. Einstein; M. Janssen, R. Schulmann, et al., eds. - ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534 - ↑ 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534, Chapter , p. 21