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Template:Cosmology The study of galaxy formation and evolution is concerned with the processes that formed a heterogeneous universe from a homogeneous beginning, the formation of the first galaxies, the way galaxies change over time, and the processes that have generated the variety of structures observed in nearby galaxies. It is one of the most active research areas in astrophysics.

Galaxy formation is hypothesized to occur, from structure formation theories, as a result of tiny quantum fluctuations in the aftermath of the Big Bang. The simplest model for this that is in general agreement with observed phenomena is the $\Lambda$ Cold Dark Matter cosmology; that is to say that clustering and merging is how galaxies gain in mass, and can also determine their shape and structure.

Formation of the first galaxies

After the Big Bang, the universe, for a time, was remarkably homogeneous, as can be observed in the cosmic microwave background or CMB (the fluctuations of which are less than one part in one hundred thousand). There was little-to-no structure in the universe, and thus no galaxies. Therefore we must ask how the smoothly distributed universe of the CMB became the clumpy universe we see today.

The most accepted theory of how these structures came to be is that all the large-scale structure of the cosmos we observe today was formed as a consequence of the growth of the primordial fluctuations, which are small changes in the density of the universe in a confined region. As the universe cooled clumps of dark matter began to condense, and within them gas began to condense. The primordial fluctuations gravitationally attracted gas and dark matter to the denser areas, and thus the seeds that would later become galaxies were formed. These structures constituted the first galaxies. At this point the universe was almost exclusively composed of hydrogen, helium, and dark matter. Soon after the first proto-galaxies formed, the hydrogen and helium gas within them began to condense and make the first stars. Thus the first galaxies were then formed. In 2007, using the Keck telescope, a team from California Institute of Technology found six star forming galaxies about 13.2 billion light years (light travel distance) away and therefore created when the universe was only 500 million years old.^[1] The discovery of a galaxy more than 13 billion years old, which existed only 480 million years after the Big Bang, was reported in January 2011.

The universe was very violent in its early epochs, and galaxies grew quickly, evolving by accretion of smaller mass galaxies. The result of this process is left imprinted on the distribution of galaxies in the nearby universe (see image of 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey). Galaxies are not isolated objects in space; rather, galaxies are distributed in a great cosmic web of filaments throughout the universe. The locations where the filaments meet are dense clusters of galaxies that began as small fluctuations in the early universe. Hence the distribution of galaxies is closely related to the physics of the early universe.

Despite its many successes, this picture is not sufficient to explain the variety of structure we see in galaxies. Galaxies come in a variety of shapes, from round, featureless elliptical galaxies to the pancake-flat spiral galaxies.

Commonly observed properties of galaxies

Hubble tuning fork diagram of galaxy morphology

Some notable observed features of galaxy structure (including our own Milky Way) that astronomers wish to explain with galactic formation theories, include (but are certainly not limited to) the following:

Spiral galaxies and the galactic disk are quite thin, dense, and rotate relatively fast. (Our Milky Way galaxy is believed to be a barred spiral.)
The majority of mass in galaxies is made up of dark matter, a substance which is not directly observable, and might not interact through any means except gravity.
Halo stars are typically much older and have much lower metallicities (that is to say, they are almost exclusively composed of hydrogen and helium) than disk stars.
Many disk galaxies have a puffed up outer disk (often called the "thick disk") that is composed of old stars.
Globular clusters are typically old and metal-poor as well, but there are a few that are not nearly as metal-poor as most, and/or have some younger stars.
High velocity clouds, clouds of neutral hydrogen are "raining" down on the galaxy, and presumably have been from the beginning (this would be the necessary source of a gas disk from which the disk stars formed).
Galaxies come in a great variety of shapes and sizes (see the Hubble Sequence), from giant, featureless blobs of old stars (called elliptical galaxies) to thin disks with gas and stars arranged in highly ordered spirals.
The majority of giant galaxies contain a supermassive black hole in their centers, ranging in mass from millions to billions of times the mass of our Sun. The black hole mass is tied to properties of its host galaxy.
Many of the properties of galaxies (including the galaxy color-magnitude diagram) indicate that there are fundamentally two types of galaxies. These groups divide into blue star-forming galaxies that are more like spiral types, and red non-star forming galaxies that are more like elliptical galaxies.

Formation of disk galaxies

The key properties of disk galaxies, which are also commonly called spiral galaxies, are that they are very thin, rotate rapidly, and often show spiral structure. One of the main challenges to galaxy formation is the great number of thin disk galaxies in the local universe. The problem is that disks are very fragile, and mergers with other galaxies can quickly destroy thin disks.

Olin Eggen, Donald Lynden-Bell, and Allan Sandage^[3] in 1962, proposed a theory that disk galaxies form through a monolithic collapse of a large gas cloud. As the cloud collapses the gas settles into a rapidly rotating disk. Known as a top-down formation scenario, this theory is quite simple yet no longer widely accepted because observations of the early universe strongly suggest that objects grow from bottom-up (i.e. smaller objects merging to form larger ones). It was first proposed by Leonard Searle and Robert Zinn^[4] that galaxies form by the coalescence of smaller progenitors.

More recent theories include the clustering of dark matter halos in the bottom-up process. Essentially early on in the universe galaxies were composed mostly of gas and dark matter, and thus, there were fewer stars. As a galaxy gained mass (by accreting smaller galaxies) the dark matter stays mostly on the outer parts of the galaxy. This is because the dark matter can only interact gravitationally, and thus will not dissipate. The gas, however, can quickly contract, and as it does so it rotates faster, until the final result is a very thin, very rapidly rotating disk.

Astronomers do not currently know what process stops the contraction. In fact, theories of disk galaxy formation are not successful at producing the rotation speed and size of disk galaxies. It has been suggested that the radiation from bright newly formed stars, or from an active galactic nuclei can slow the contraction of a forming disk. It has also been suggested that the dark matter halo can pull the galaxy, thus stopping disk contraction.

In recent years, a great deal of focus has been put on understanding merger events in the evolution of galaxies. Our own galaxy (the Milky Way) has a tiny satellite galaxy (the Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy) which is currently gradually being ripped up and "eaten" by the Milky Way. It is thought these kinds of events may be quite common in the evolution of large galaxies. The Sagittarius dwarf galaxy is orbiting our galaxy at almost a right angle to the disk. It is currently passing through the disk; stars are being stripped off of it with each pass and joining the halo of our galaxy. There are other examples of these minor accretion events, and it is likely a continual process for many galaxies. Such mergers provide "new" gas, stars, and dark matter to galaxies. Evidence for this process is often observable as warps or streams coming out of galaxies.

The Lambda-CDM model of galaxy formation underestimates the number of thin disk galaxies in the universe.^[5] The reason is that these galaxy formation models predict a large number of mergers. If disk galaxies merge with another galaxy of comparable mass (at least 15 percent of its mass) the merger will likely destroy, or at a minimum greatly disrupt the disk, yet the resulting galaxy is not expected to be a disk galaxy. While this remains an unsolved problem for astronomers, it does not necessarily mean that the Lambda-CDM model is completely wrong, but rather that it requires further refinement to accurately reproduce the population of galaxies in the universe.

Galaxy mergers and the formation of elliptical galaxies

An image of NGC 4676 (also called the Mice Galaxies) is an example of a present merger.

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The most massive galaxies in the sky are giant elliptical galaxies. Their stars are on orbits that are randomly oriented within the galaxy (i.e. they are not rotating like disk galaxies). They are composed of old stars and have little to no dust. All elliptical galaxies probed so far have supermassive black holes in their center, and the mass of these black holes is correlated with the mass of the elliptical galaxy. They are also correlated to a property called sigma which is the speed of the stars at the far edge of the elliptical galaxies. Elliptical galaxies do not have disks around them, although some bulges of disk galaxies look similar to elliptical galaxies. One is more likely to find elliptical galaxies in more crowded regions of the universe (such as galaxy clusters).

Astronomers now see elliptical galaxies as some of the most evolved systems in the universe. It is widely accepted that the main driving force for the evolution of elliptical galaxies is mergers of smaller galaxies. These mergers can be extremely violent; galaxies often collide at speeds of 500 kilometers per second.

Many galaxies in the universe are gravitationally bound to other galaxies, that is to say they will never escape the pull of the other galaxy. If the galaxies are of similar size, the resultant galaxy will appear similar to neither of the two galaxies merging,^[6] but would instead be an elliptical galaxy. An image of an ongoing merger of equal sized disk galaxies is shown left.

In the Local Group, the Milky Way and M31 (the Andromeda Galaxy) are gravitationally bound, and currently approaching each other at high speed. If the two galaxies do meet they will pass through each other, with gravity distorting both galaxies severely and ejecting some gas, dust and stars into intergalactic space. They will travel apart, slow down, and then again be drawn towards each other, and again collide. Eventually both galaxies will have merged completely, streams of gas and dust will be flying through the space near the newly formed giant elliptical galaxy. M31 is actually already distorted: the edges are warped. This is probably because of interactions with its own galactic companions, as well as possible mergers with dwarf spheroidal galaxies in the recent past - the remnants of which are still visible in the disk populations.

In our epoch, large concentrations of galaxies (clusters and superclusters) are still assembling.

While scientists have learned a great deal about ours and other galaxies, the most fundamental questions about formation and evolution remain only tentatively answered.

References

43 year old Petroleum Engineer Harry from Deep River, usually spends time with hobbies and interests like renting movies, property developers in singapore new condominium and vehicle racing. Constantly enjoys going to destinations like Camino Real de Tierra Adentro.

External links

NOAO gallery of galaxy images
- Image of Andromeda galaxy (M31)
Javascript passive evolution calculator for early type (elliptical) galaxies
Video on the evolution of galaxies by Canadian astrophysicist Doctor P

Template:Galaxy

↑ "New Scientist" 14th July 2007
↑ Template:Cite news
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In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

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A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

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↑ One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
↑ One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
↑ Barnes,J. Nature, vol. 338, March 9, 1989, p. 123-126

[1] "New Scientist" 14th July 2007

[2] Template:Cite news

[3] One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang

[4] One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang

[5] One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang

[6] Barnes,J. Nature, vol. 338, March 9, 1989, p. 123-126

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-There are a range of techniques to lose weight plus move forward with healthy living. Getting there is very hard, when youre not selected to getting by the many different things which are necessary to move forward. If youre looking to lose fat, get fit plus possibly even build lean muscle, youll need to follow 3 major strategies. One of them involves Absonutrix Raspberry Ketones, which is functioning like a magic. Consider the following 3 strategies that you can commence utilizing today to receive the maximum exercise and wellness plan possible.<br><br>However is this safe?Indeed, these capsules are free from negative effects and is utilized by both people. Imbued with all natural supplements, it comes with full satisfaction without causing the body any side-effects.However, constantly follow the dosages as per recommendations. This really is essential for the well-being of the body.<br><br>raspberry ketone supplements are not for everyone. It is not suggested to purchase and start using any such supplement without consulting the physician. Just look for "raspberry ketone reviews" and you are amazed to find that how badly these supplements have affected people's wellness. Although not all the time, but inside most of the instances they do. So the initially thing we have to do, whenever you think of using any such supplement, is to consult your physician and see what he/she has to suggest we, plus do how you may be suggested.<br><br>No. 1: QuickTrim Fast-Shake left a bad aftertaste inside my mouth which didn't go away for hours. It was not bad enough to make me throw away my canister, yet it was noticeable.<br><br>According to the label, this little bottle of pills increases your inner body temperature. It turns your body into a calorie burning furnace! It uses a lot of weird chemical-sounding ingredients to go about this: things like [http://safedietplansforwomen.com/raspberry-ketones raspberry ketone] and Citrus Aurantium (note: growing auarantium claws is not a possible side effect). Also included: Green Tea Extract, Caffeine and Vitamin B6. Of course, like the vast majority of weight-loss supplements, Thermo Fire adds a small disclaimer. These statements have not been evaluated by the FDA. No surprises here!<br><br>If you have low self worth, it usually affect everything we do, including the efforts to change a body and lose weight. Somehow, you need to raspberry ketone diet eat right and exercise because you're worthwhile as well as its wise for the health plus lifestyle. These are especially positive behaviors plus might cause permanent lifestyle changes.<br><br>Mega T. The variety I take has green tea, caffeine, green coffee, hoodia gordonii, acai, yerbe mate, uva ursi leaf, wakame seaweed, resveratrol plus guarana. Some are fat burners and certain, antioxidants. Note, this pill contains 4 sources of caffeine including guarana--a all-natural coffee-like stimulant, claims Columbia Health Go Ask Alice). Remember to track all sources of caffeine. I was feeling anxious plus irritable plus discovered green tea inside several additional supplements I took. A 30-count box is regarding $4, however, I've found sales. I take 1 tablet 3 tablets daily with meals.<br><br>Should you try the raspberry ketone fat loss supplement? It appears like the product is value struggling. But, if your exercise plus diet regimen have been working thus far, then, there seems to be no need for you to invest inside anything which can only make you spend more.
+{{Cosmology|cTopic=Structure Formation}}
+The study of '''galaxy formation and evolution''' is concerned with the processes that formed a [[Homogeneity and heterogeneity|heterogeneous]] universe from a homogeneous beginning, the formation of the first galaxies, the way galaxies change over time, and the processes that have generated the variety of structures observed in nearby galaxies. It is one of the most active research areas in [[astrophysics]].
+[[Galaxy]] formation is hypothesized to occur, from [[structure formation]] theories, as a result of tiny [[quantum fluctuation]]s in the aftermath of the [[Big Bang]]. The simplest model for this that is in general agreement with observed phenomena is the [[Lambda-CDM model|<math>\Lambda</math> Cold Dark Matter cosmology]]; that is to say that clustering and merging is how galaxies gain in mass, and can also determine their shape and structure.
+==Formation of the first galaxies==
+After the [[Big Bang]], the [[universe]], for a time, was remarkably [[Homogeneity (physics)|homogeneous]], as can be observed in the [[cosmic microwave background]] or CMB (the [[density contrast|fluctuations]] of which are less than one part in one hundred thousand). There was little-to-no structure in the universe, and thus no galaxies. Therefore we must ask how the smoothly distributed universe of the [[Cosmic microwave background|CMB]] became the clumpy universe we see today.
+The most accepted theory of how these structures came to be is that all the [[large-scale structure of the cosmos]] we observe today was [[structure formation|formed]] as a consequence of the growth of the [[primordial fluctuations]], which are small changes in the density of the universe in a confined region. As the universe cooled clumps of [[dark matter]] began to condense, and within them gas began to condense. The primordial fluctuations gravitationally attracted gas and dark matter to the denser areas, and thus the seeds that would later become galaxies were formed. These structures constituted the first galaxies. At this point the universe was almost exclusively composed of hydrogen, helium, and dark matter. Soon after the first proto-galaxies formed, the hydrogen and helium gas within them began to condense and make the first stars. Thus the first galaxies were then formed. In 2007, using the [[W. M. Keck Observatory|Keck]] telescope, a team from [[California Institute of Technology]] found six star forming galaxies about 13.2 billion light years ([[Distance measures (cosmology)|light travel distance]]) away and therefore created when the universe was only 500 million years old.<ref>"New Scientist" 14th July 2007</ref>  The discovery of a galaxy more than 13 billion years old, which existed only 480 million years after the Big Bang, was reported in January 2011.
+[[File:ALMA Pinpoints Early Galaxies.jpg|thumb|Over 100 of the most fertile star-forming galaxies in the early Universe pinpointed by [[Atacama Large Millimeter Array|ALMA]].<ref>{{cite news|title=ALMA Pinpoints Early Galaxies at Record Speed|url=http://www.eso.org/public/news/eso1318/|accessdate=17 April 2013|newspaper=ESO Press Release}}</ref> ]]
+The universe was very violent in its early epochs, and galaxies grew quickly, evolving by accretion of smaller mass galaxies. The result of this process is left imprinted on the distribution of galaxies in the nearby universe (see image of [[2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey]]). Galaxies are not isolated objects in space; rather, galaxies are distributed in a great cosmic web of filaments throughout the universe. The locations where the filaments meet are dense [[galaxy cluster|clusters of galaxies]] that began as small fluctuations in the early universe. Hence the distribution of galaxies is closely related to the physics of the early universe.
+Despite its many successes, this picture is not sufficient to explain the variety of structure we see in [[galaxies]]. Galaxies come in a variety of shapes, from round, featureless [[elliptical galaxies]] to the pancake-flat [[spiral galaxies]].
+== Commonly observed properties of galaxies ==
+[[Image:NGC891.jpg|thumb|210px|right| [[NGC 891]], a very thin disk galaxy.]]
+[[Image:HubbleTuningFork.jpg|thumb|210px|right|[[Hubble Sequence|Hubble tuning fork]] diagram of galaxy morphology]]
+[[Image:Artist’s impression of a gamma-ray burst shining through two young galaxies in the early Universe.jpg|thumb|This artist’s impression shows two galaxies in the early universe. The brilliant explosion on the left is a [[gamma-ray burst]]. As the light from the burst passes through the two galaxies on the way to [[Earth]] (outside the frame to the right), some colours are absorbed by the cool gas in the galaxies, leaving characteristic dark lines in the spectrum. Careful study of these spectra has allowed astronomers to discover that these two galaxies are remarkably rich in heavier chemical elements.]]
+Some notable observed features of [[galaxy]] structure (including our own [[Milky Way]]) that [[astronomers]] wish to explain with galactic formation theories, include (but are certainly not limited to) the following:
+* [[Spiral galaxies]] and the [[galactic plane|galactic disk]] are quite thin, dense, and rotate relatively fast. (Our Milky Way galaxy is believed to be a barred spiral.)
+* The majority of mass in galaxies is made up of [[dark matter]], a substance which is not directly observable, and might not interact through any means except gravity.
+* [[Halo star]]s are typically much older and have much lower [[metallicity|metallicities]] (that is to say, they are almost exclusively composed of [[hydrogen]] and [[helium]]) than disk stars.
+* Many disk galaxies have a puffed up outer disk (often called the "thick disk") that is composed of old stars.
+* [[Globular cluster]]s are typically old and metal-poor as well, but there are a few that are not nearly as metal-poor as most, and/or have some younger stars.
+* [[High velocity cloud]]s, clouds of [[electric charge|neutral]] [[hydrogen]] are "raining" down on the galaxy, and presumably have been from the beginning (this would be the necessary source of a gas disk from which the disk stars formed).
+* Galaxies come in a great variety of shapes and sizes (see the [[Hubble Sequence]]), from giant, featureless blobs of old stars (called [[elliptical galaxies]]) to thin disks with gas and stars arranged in highly ordered [[spiral galaxies|spirals]].
+* The majority of giant galaxies contain a [[supermassive black hole]] in their centers, ranging in mass from millions to billions of times the mass of our [[Sun]]. The black hole mass is tied to properties of its host galaxy.
+* Many of the properties of galaxies (including the [[galaxy color-magnitude diagram]]) indicate that there are fundamentally two types of galaxies. These groups divide into blue star-forming galaxies that are more like [[spiral galaxies|spiral types]], and red non-star forming galaxies that are more like [[elliptical galaxies]].
+==Formation of disk galaxies==
+[[Image:M101 hires STScI-PRC2006-10a.jpg|thumb|220px|An image of Messier 101 a prototypical [[spiral galaxy]] seen face-on.]]
+[[Image:warped galaxy.jpg|thumb|right|220px|A spiral galaxy, ESO 510-G13, was warped as a result of colliding with another galaxy. After the other galaxy is completely absorbed, the distortion will disappear. The process typically takes millions if not billions of years.]]
+The key properties of [[spiral galaxy|disk galaxies]], which are also commonly called [[spiral galaxies]], are that they are very thin, rotate rapidly, and often show spiral structure. One of the main challenges to galaxy formation is the great number of thin disk galaxies in the local universe. The problem is that disks are very fragile, and mergers with other galaxies can quickly destroy thin disks.
+[[Olin Eggen]], [[Donald Lynden-Bell]], and [[Allan Sandage]]<ref>{{cite journal | last = Eggen | first = O.J. | coauthors = Lynden-Bell, D.; Sandage, A. R. | title = Evidence from the motions of old stars that the Galaxy collapsed | bibcode = 1962ApJ...136..748E | year = 1962 | journal = [[Astrophysical Journal|The Astrophysical Journal]] | volume = 136 | pages = 748 | doi = 10.1086/147433}}</ref> in 1962, proposed a theory that disk galaxies form through a monolithic collapse of a large gas cloud. As the cloud collapses the gas settles into a rapidly rotating disk. Known as a top-down formation scenario, this theory is quite simple yet no longer widely accepted because observations of the early universe strongly suggest that objects grow from bottom-up (i.e. smaller objects merging to form larger ones). It was first proposed by [[Leonard Searle]] and [[Robert Zinn]]<ref>{{cite journal | last = Searle | first = L. | coauthors = Zinn, R. | year = 1978 | journal = [[Astrophysical Journal|The Astrophysical Journal]] | title = Compositions of halo clusters and the formation of the galactic halo | bibcode = 1978ApJ...225..357S | volume = 225 | pages = 357–379 | doi = 10.1086/156499}}</ref> that galaxies form by the coalescence of smaller progenitors.
+More recent theories include the clustering of dark matter halos in the bottom-up process. Essentially early on in the universe galaxies were composed mostly of gas and dark matter, and thus, there were fewer stars. As a galaxy gained mass (by accreting smaller galaxies) the dark matter stays mostly on the outer parts of the galaxy. This is because the dark matter can only interact gravitationally, and thus will not dissipate. The gas, however, can quickly contract, and as it does so it rotates faster, until the final result is a very thin, very rapidly rotating disk.
+Astronomers do not currently know what process stops the contraction. In fact, theories of disk galaxy formation are not successful at producing the rotation speed and size of disk galaxies. It has been suggested that the radiation from bright newly formed stars, or from an [[active galactic nuclei]] can slow the contraction of a forming disk. It has also been suggested that the [[dark matter]] halo can pull the galaxy, thus stopping disk contraction.
+In recent years, a great deal of focus has been put on understanding merger events in the evolution of galaxies. Our own galaxy (the [[Milky Way]]) has a tiny [[satellite]] galaxy (the [[Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy]]) which is currently gradually being ripped up and "eaten" by the [[Milky Way]]. It is thought these kinds of events may be quite common in the evolution of large galaxies. The Sagittarius dwarf galaxy is orbiting our galaxy at almost a right angle to the disk. It is currently passing through the disk; stars are being stripped off of it with each pass and joining the halo of our galaxy. There are other examples of these minor accretion events, and it is likely a continual process for many galaxies. Such mergers provide "new" gas, stars, and dark matter to galaxies. Evidence for this process is often observable as warps or streams coming out of galaxies.
+The [[Lambda-CDM model]] of galaxy formation underestimates the number of thin disk galaxies in the universe.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Steinmetz | first = M. | coauthors = Navarro, J.F. | year = 2002 | journal = New Astronomy | title = The hierarchical origin of galaxy morphologies | arxiv = astro-ph/0202466 | volume = 7 | issue = 4 | pages = 155–160 | doi = 10.1016/S1384-1076(02)00102-1|bibcode = 2002NewA....7..155S }}</ref> The reason is that these galaxy formation models predict a large number of mergers. If disk galaxies merge with another galaxy of comparable mass (at least 15 percent of its mass) the merger will likely destroy, or at a minimum greatly disrupt the disk, yet the resulting galaxy is not expected to be a disk galaxy. While this remains an unsolved problem for astronomers, it does not necessarily mean that the [[Lambda-CDM model]] is completely wrong, but rather that it requires further refinement to accurately reproduce the population of galaxies in the universe.
+==Galaxy mergers and the formation of elliptical galaxies==
+[[Image:Abell S740, cropped to ESO 325-G004.jpg|thumb|220px|left|ESO 325-G004, a typical elliptical galaxy.]]
+[[Image:NGC4676.jpg|thumb|220px|left|An image of NGC 4676 (also called the [[Mice Galaxies]]) is an example of a present merger. ]]
+{{Main|Galaxy merger}}
+The most massive galaxies in the sky are giant [[elliptical galaxy|elliptical galaxies]]. Their stars are on orbits that are randomly oriented within the galaxy (i.e. they are not rotating like disk galaxies). They are composed of old stars and have little to no dust. All elliptical galaxies probed so far have [[supermassive black hole]]s in their center, and the mass of these black holes is correlated with the mass of the elliptical galaxy. They are also correlated to a property called [[Sigma (cosmology)|sigma]] which is the speed of the stars at the far edge of the elliptical galaxies. Elliptical galaxies do not have disks around them, although some [[bulge (astronomy)|bulges]] of disk galaxies look similar to elliptical galaxies. One is more likely to find elliptical galaxies in more crowded regions of the universe (such as [[galaxy clusters]]).
+Astronomers now see elliptical galaxies as some of the most evolved systems in the universe. It is widely accepted that the main driving force for the evolution of elliptical galaxies is mergers of smaller galaxies. These mergers can be extremely violent; galaxies often collide at speeds of 500 kilometers per second.
+Many galaxies in the universe are gravitationally bound to other galaxies, that is to say they will never escape the pull of the other galaxy. If the galaxies are of similar size, the resultant galaxy will appear similar to neither of the two galaxies merging,<ref>Barnes,J. Nature, vol. 338, March 9, 1989, p. 123-126</ref> but would instead be an [[elliptical galaxy]]. An image of an ongoing merger of equal sized disk galaxies is shown left.
+[[Image:Antennae galaxies xl.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The [[Antennae Galaxies]] are a dramatic pair of colliding galaxies. In such a collision, the stars within each galaxy will pass by each other (virtually) without incident. This is due to the relatively large interstellar distances compared to the relatively small size of an individual star. Diffuse gas clouds, however, readily collide to produce shocks which in turn stimulate bursts of star formation. The bright, blue knots indicate the hot, young stars that have recently ignited as a result of the merger. ]]
+In the [[Local Group]], the Milky Way and M31 (the [[Andromeda Galaxy]]) are gravitationally bound, and currently approaching each other at high speed. If the two galaxies do meet they will pass through each other, with gravity distorting both galaxies severely and ejecting some gas, dust and stars into [[intergalactic space]].  They will travel apart, slow down, and then again be drawn towards each other, and again collide.  Eventually both galaxies will have merged completely, streams of gas and dust will be flying through the space near the newly formed giant elliptical galaxy. M31 is actually already distorted: the edges are warped. This is probably because of interactions with its own galactic companions, as well as possible mergers with dwarf spheroidal galaxies in the recent past - the remnants of which are still visible in the disk populations.
+In our epoch, large concentrations of galaxies ([[groups and clusters of galaxies|clusters]] and [[supercluster]]s) are still assembling.
+While scientists have learned a great deal about ours and other galaxies, the most fundamental questions about formation and evolution remain only tentatively answered.
+== See also ==
+{{colbegin|2}}
+* [[Bulge (astronomy)]]
+* [[Disc (galaxy)]]
+* [[Galactic coordinate system]]
+* [[Galactic corona]]
+* [[Galactic halo]]
+* [[Galaxy rotation problem]]
+* [[Pea galaxy]]
+* [[Zeldovich pancake]]
+* [[Metallicity distribution function]]
+* [[Mass segregation]]
+* [[Timeline of the Big Bang]]
+* [[Chronology of the universe]]
+* [[Big Bang]]
+* [[Stellar formation]]
+* [[Structure formation]]
+* [[Formation and evolution of the Solar System]]
+{{colend}}
+==References==
+{{reflist}}
+==External links==
+* [http://www.noao.edu/image_gallery/galaxies.html NOAO gallery of galaxy images]
+** [http://www.noao.edu/image_gallery/html/im0685.html Image of Andromeda galaxy (M31)]
+* [http://www.astro.yale.edu/dokkum/evocalc/ Javascript passive evolution calculator] for early type (elliptical) galaxies
+* [http://spacegeek.org/ep4_flash.shtml Video on the evolution of galaxies by Canadian astrophysicist Doctor P]
+{{Galaxy}}
+[[Category:Galaxies|Formation and evolution]]
+[[Category:Stellar evolution]]

History of geometry: Difference between revisions

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Contents

Formation of the first galaxies

Commonly observed properties of galaxies

Formation of disk galaxies

Galaxy mergers and the formation of elliptical galaxies

See also

References

External links

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History of geometry: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 03:01, 22 November 2013

Formation of the first galaxies

Commonly observed properties of galaxies

Formation of disk galaxies

Galaxy mergers and the formation of elliptical galaxies

See also

References

External links

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