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| | Let me first begin by introducing myself. My name is Boyd Butts although it is not the title on my birth certification. She is a librarian but she's usually needed her own business. To do aerobics is a thing that I'm completely addicted to. Minnesota is exactly where he's been residing for many years.<br><br>Here is my homepage - [http://srgame.co.kr/qna/21862 srgame.co.kr] |
| In [[chemistry]] and [[physics]], the ''''''Inductive Effect'''''' is an experimentally observable effect of the transmission of [[charge (physics)|charge]] through a chain of [[atoms]] in a [[molecule]].
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| The permanent dipole induced in one bond by another is called inductive effect.
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| The [[electron cloud]] in a [[Sigma bond|σ-bond]] between two unlike [[atoms]] is not uniform and is slightly displaced towards the more [[Electronegativity|electronegative]] of the two atoms. This causes a permanent state of [[polar bond|bond polarization]], where the more electronegative atom has a slight negative charge (δ–) and the other atom has a slight positive charge (δ+).
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| If the electronegative atom is then joined to a chain of atoms, usually [[carbon]], the positive charge is relayed to the other atoms in the chain. This is the electron-withdrawing inductive effect, also known as the '''<math>-I</math> effect'''.
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| Some groups, such as the [[Alkyl group|alkyl]] group are less electron-withdrawing than [[hydrogen]] and are therefore considered as electron-releasing. This is electron releasing character and is indicated by the '''<math>+I</math> effect'''. In short, alkyl groups tend to give electrons, leading to induction effect.
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| As the induced change in polarity is less than the original polarity, the inductive effect rapidly dies out. Therefore, the effect is significant only over a short distance. The inductive effect is permanent but feeble, as it involves the shift of strongly held σ-bond electrons, and other stronger factors may overshadow this effect.
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| Relative inductive effects have been experimentally measured with reference to hydrogen:
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| (Decreasing order of - I effect or increasing order of + I effect)
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| '''<big>—NR<sub>3</sub> > —NO<sub>2</sub> > —SO<sub>2</sub>R > —CN > —COOH > —F > —Cl > —Br > —I > —OR > —COR > —OH > —C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub> > —CH=CH<sub>2</sub> > —H</big>'''
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| Also the inductive effect is dependent on the distance between the substituent group and the main group that react. That is, as the distance of the substituent group increases the Inductive effect weakens or decreases.
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| Inductive effects can be measured through the [[Hammett equation]].
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| The inductive effect can also be used to determine the stability of a molecule depending on the charge present on the atom and the groups bonded to it. For example, if an atom has a positive charge and is attached to a −I group its charge becomes 'amplified' and the molecule becomes more unstable. Similarly, if an atom has a negative charge and is attached to a +I group its charge becomes 'amplified' and the molecule becomes more unstable. But, contrary to the above two cases, if an atom has a negative charge and is attached to a −I group its charge becomes 'de-amplified' and the molecule becomes more stable than if I-effect was not taken into consideration. Similarly, if an atom has a positive charge and is attached to a +I group its charge becomes 'de-amplified' and the molecule becomes more stable than if I-effect was not taken into consideration. The explanation for the above is given by the fact that more charge on an atom decreases stability and less charge on an atom increases stability.
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| The inductive effect also plays a vital role in deciding the acidity and basicity of a molecule. Groups having +I effect attached to a molecule increases the overall electron density on the molecule and the molecule is able to donate electrons, making it basic. Similarly groups having -I effect attached to a molecule decreases the overall electron density on the molecule making it electron deficient which results in its acidity. As the number of -I groups attached to a molecule increases, its acidity increases; as the number of +I groups on a molecule increases, its basicity increases.
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| == Applications ==
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| * '''[[Aliphatic]] carboxylic acids.''' The [[acidity|strength]] of a [[carboxylic acid]] depends on the extent of its [[ionization]]: the more ionized it is, the stronger it is. As an acid becomes stronger, the numerical value of its [[Acid dissociation constant|pK<sub>a</sub>]] drops. In aliphatic acids, the electron-releasing inductive effect of the methyl group increases the electron density on [[oxygen]] and thus hinders the breaking of the O-H bond, which consequently reduces the ionization. Greater ionization in [[formic acid]] when compared to [[acetic acid]] makes formic acid (pK<sub>a</sub>=3.75) stronger than acetic acid (pK<sub>a</sub>=4.76). Monochloroacetic acid (pK<sub>a</sub>=2.82), though, is stronger than formic acid, since the electron-withdrawing effect of chlorine promotes ionization.
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| * Aromatic carboxylic acids. In [[benzoic acid]], the carbon atoms which are present in the ring are [[Orbital hybridisation|sp<sub>2</sub> hybridised]].As a result, benzoic acid(pK<sub>a</sub>=4.20) is a stronger acid than [[cyclohexane]] [[carboxylic acid]](pK<sub>a</sub>=4.87). Also, electron-withdrawing groups substituted at the [[aromatic ortho substituent|ortho]] and [[Aromatic para substituent|para]] positions, enhance the acid strength.
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| * Dioic acids. Since the [[carboxyl]] group is itself an electron-withdrawing group, the dioic acids are, in general, stronger than their monocarboxyl analogues.
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| * In the so-called [[Baker–Nathan effect]] the observed order in electron-releasing alkyl substituents is apparently reversed.
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| == See also ==
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| * [[List of publications in chemistry#Organic chemistry|Important publications in organic chemistry]]
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| ==References==
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| {{reflist}}
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| [[Category:Physical organic chemistry]]
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| [[Category:Chemical bonding]]
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Let me first begin by introducing myself. My name is Boyd Butts although it is not the title on my birth certification. She is a librarian but she's usually needed her own business. To do aerobics is a thing that I'm completely addicted to. Minnesota is exactly where he's been residing for many years.
Here is my homepage - srgame.co.kr