Rayleigh quotient

The Sine–Gordon equation is a nonlinear hyperbolic partial differential equation in 1 + 1 dimensions involving the d'Alembert operator and the sine of the unknown function. It was originally introduced by Template:Harvs in the course of study of surfaces of constant negative curvature as the Gauss–Codazzi equation for surfaces of curvature –1 in 3-space, and rediscovered by Template:Harvs in their study of crystal dislocations. This equation attracted a lot of attention in the 1970s due to the presence of soliton solutions.

Origin of the equation and its name

There are two equivalent forms of the sine–Gordon equation. In the (real) space-time coordinates, denoted (x, t), the equation reads:

$\,\varphi _{tt}-\varphi _{xx}+\sin \varphi =0.$

Passing to the light cone coordinates (u, v), akin to asymptotic coordinates where

$u={\frac {x+t}{2}},\quad v={\frac {x-t}{2}},$

the equation takes the form:

$\varphi _{uv}=\sin \varphi .\,$

This is the original form of the sine–Gordon equation, as it was considered in the nineteenth century in the course of investigation of surfaces of constant Gaussian curvature K = −1, also called pseudospherical surfaces. Choose a coordinate system for such a surface in which the coordinate mesh u = constant, v = constant is given by the asymptotic lines parameterized with respect to the arc length. The first fundamental form of the surface in these coordinates has a special form

$ds^{2}=du^{2}+2\cos \varphi \,du\,dv+dv^{2},\,$

where $\varphi$ expresses the angle between the asymptotic lines, and for the second fundamental form, L = N = 0. Then the Codazzi-Mainardi equation expressing a compatibility condition between the first and second fundamental forms results in the sine–Gordon equation. The study of this equation and of the associated transformations of pseudospherical surfaces in the 19th century by Bianchi and Bäcklund led to the discovery of Bäcklund transformations.

The name "sine–Gordon equation" is a pun on the well-known Klein–Gordon equation in physics:

$\varphi _{tt}-\varphi _{xx}+\varphi \ =0.\,$

The sine–Gordon equation is the Euler–Lagrange equation of the field whose Lagrangian density is given by

${\mathcal {L}}_{\text{SG}}(\varphi )={\frac {1}{2}}(\varphi _{t}^{2}-\varphi _{x}^{2})-1+\cos \varphi .$

Using the Taylor series expansion of the cosine in the Lagrangian,

$\cos(\varphi )=\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(-\varphi ^{2})^{n}}{(2n)!}},$

it can be rewritten as the Klein–Gordon Lagrangian plus higher order terms

${\begin{aligned}{\mathcal {L}}_{\text{SG}}(\varphi )&={\frac {1}{2}}(\varphi _{t}^{2}-\varphi _{x}^{2})-{\frac {\varphi ^{2}}{2}}+\sum _{n=2}^{\infty }{\frac {(-\varphi ^{2})^{n}}{(2n)!}}\\&={\mathcal {L}}_{\text{KG}}(\varphi )+\sum _{n=2}^{\infty }{\frac {(-\varphi ^{2})^{n}}{(2n)!}}.\end{aligned}}$

Soliton solutions

An interesting feature of the sine–Gordon equation is the existence of soliton and multisoliton solutions.

1-soliton solutions

The sine–Gordon equation has the following 1-soliton solutions:

$\varphi _{\text{soliton}}(x,t):=4\arctan e^{m\gamma (x-vt)+\delta }\,$

where

$\gamma ^{2}={\frac {1}{1-v^{2}}}.$

and the slightly more general form of the equation is assumed:

$\,\varphi _{tt}-\varphi _{xx}+m^{2}\sin \varphi =0.$

The 1-soliton solution for which we have chosen the positive root for $\gamma$ is called a kink, and represents a twist in the variable $\varphi$ which takes the system from one solution $\varphi =0$ to an adjacent with $\varphi =2\pi$. The states $\varphi =0({\textrm {mod}}2\pi )$ are known as vacuum states as they are constant solutions of zero energy. The 1-soliton solution in which we take the negative root for $\gamma$ is called an antikink. The form of the 1-soliton solutions can be obtained through application of a Bäcklund transform to the trivial (constant vacuum) solution and the integration of the resulting first-order differentials:

${\varphi ^{\prime }}_{u}=\varphi _{u}+2\beta \sin \left({\frac {\varphi ^{\prime }+\varphi }{2}}\right),$

${\varphi ^{\prime }}_{v}=-\varphi _{v}+{\frac {2}{\beta }}\sin \left({\frac {\varphi ^{\prime }-\varphi }{2}}\right){\text{ with }}\varphi =\varphi _{0}=0$

for all time.

The 1-soliton solutions can be visualized with the use of the elastic ribbon sine–Gordon model as discussed by Dodd and co-workers. Here we take a clockwise (left-handed) twist of the elastic ribbon to be a kink with topological charge $\vartheta _{\textrm {K}}=-1$. The alternative counterclockwise (right-handed) twist with topological charge $\vartheta _{\textrm {AK}}=+1$ will be an antikink.

Traveling kink soliton represents propagating clockwise twist.

Traveling antikink soliton represents propagating counterclockwise twist.

2-soliton solutions

Multi-soliton solutions can be obtained through continued application of the Bäcklund transform to the 1-soliton solution, as prescribed by a Bianchi lattice relating the transformed results. The 2-soliton solutions of the sine–Gordon equation show some of the characteristic features of the solitons. The traveling sine–Gordon kinks and/or antikinks pass through each other as if perfectly permeable, and the only observed effect is a phase shift. Since the colliding solitons recover their velocity and shape such kind of interaction is called an elastic collision.

Antikink-kink collision.

Kink-kink collision.

Another interesting 2-soliton solutions arise from the possibility of coupled kink-antikink behaviour known as a breather. There are known three types of breathers: standing breather, traveling large amplitude breather, and traveling small amplitude breather.

Standing breather is a swinging in time coupled kink-antikink soliton.

Large amplitude moving breather.

Small-amplitude moving breather — looks exotic but essentially has a breather envelope.

3-soliton solutions

3-soliton collisions between a traveling kink and a standing breather or a traveling antikink and a standing breather results in a phase shift of the standing breather. In the process of collision between a moving kink and a standing breather, the shift of the breather $\Delta _{\textrm {B}}$ is given by:

$\Delta _{B}={\frac {2{\textrm {arctanh}}{\sqrt {(1-\omega ^{2})(1-v_{\text{K}}^{2})}}}{\sqrt {1-\omega ^{2}}}}$

where $v_{\text{K}}$ is the velocity of the kink, and $\omega$ is the breather's frequency. If the old position of the standing breather is $x_{0}$, after the collision the new position will be $x_{0}+\Delta _{\text{B}}$.

Moving kink-standing breather collision.

Moving antikink-standing breather collision.

Related equations

The Template:Visible anchor is given by

$\varphi _{xx}-\varphi _{tt}=\sinh \varphi .\,$

This is the Euler–Lagrange equation of the Lagrangian

${\mathcal {L}}={1 \over 2}(\varphi _{t}^{2}-\varphi _{x}^{2})-\cosh \varphi .\,$

Another closely related equation is the elliptic sine–Gordon equation, given by

$\varphi _{xx}+\varphi _{yy}=\sin \varphi ,\,$

where $\varphi$ is now a function of the variables x and y. This is no longer a soliton equation, but it has many similar properties, as it is related to the sine–Gordon equation by the analytic continuation (or Wick rotation) y = it.

The elliptic sinh–Gordon equation may be defined in a similar way.

A generalization is given by Toda field theory.

Quantum version

In quantum field theory the sine–Gordon model contains a parameter, it can be identified with Planck constant. The particle spectrum consists of a soliton, an anti-soliton and a finite (possibly zero) number of breathers. The number of the breathers depends on the value of the parameter. Multi particle productions cancels on mass shell. Vanishing of two into four amplitude was explicitly checked in one loop approximation.

Semi-classical quantization of the sine–Gordon model was done by Ludwig Faddeev and Vladimir Korepin. The exact quantum scattering matrix was discovered by Alexander Zamolodchikov. This model is S-dual to the Thirring model.

In finite volume and on a half line

One can also consider the sine–Gordon model on a circle, on a line segment, or on a half line. It is possible to find boundary conditions which preserve the integrability of the model. On a half line the spectrum contains boundary bound states in addition to the solitons and breathers.

Supersymmetric sine–Gordon model

A supersymmetric extension of the sine–Gordon model also exists. Integrability preserving boundary conditions for this extension can be found as well.

See also

• Josephson effect
• Fluxon
• Shape waves

References

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  Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.
  
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  To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010

External links

• Sine–Gordon Equation at EqWorld: The World of Mathematical Equations.
• Sinh–Gordon Equation at EqWorld: The World of Mathematical Equations.
• Sine–Gordon equation at NEQwiki, the nonlinear equations encyclopedia.