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{{DISPLAYTITLE:Primitive root modulo ''n''}}
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In [[modular arithmetic]], a branch of [[number theory]],  a number ''g'' is a '''primitive root modulo ''n''''' if every number [[coprime]] to ''n'' is [[Modular arithmetic#Congruence relation|congruent]] to a power of ''g'' modulo ''n''. In other words, ''g'' is a generator of the [[multiplicative group of integers modulo n]]. That is, for every integer ''a'' [[coprime]] to ''n'', there is an integer ''k'' such that ''g''<sup>''k''</sup> ≡ ''a'' (mod ''n''). Such ''k'' is called the '''index''' or '''[[discrete logarithm]]''' of ''a'' to the base ''g'' modulo ''n''.
 
[[Carl Friedrich Gauss|Gauss]] defined primitive roots in Article 57 of the [[Disquisitiones Arithmeticae]] (1801), where he credited [[Euler]] with coining the term. In Article 56 he stated that Lambert and Euler knew of them, but he was the first to rigorously demonstrate that primitive roots exist. In fact, the ''Disquisitiones'' contains two proofs: the one in Article 54 is a nonconstructive [[Existence theorem|existence proof]], while the other in Article 55 is [[Constructive proof|constructive]].
 
==Elementary example==
The number 3 is a primitive root modulo 7<ref>http://www.brynmawr.edu/math/people/stromquist/numbers/primitive.html</ref> because
::<math>
\begin{array}{rcrcrcrcrcr}
3^1 &=&  3 &=& 3^0 \times 3 &\equiv& 1 \times 3 &=&  3 &\equiv& 3 \pmod 7 \\
3^2 &=&  9 &=& 3^1 \times 3 &\equiv& 3 \times 3 &=&  9 &\equiv& 2 \pmod 7 \\
3^3 &=&  27 &=& 3^2 \times 3 &\equiv& 2 \times 3 &=&  6 &\equiv& 6 \pmod 7 \\
3^4 &=&  81 &=& 3^3 \times 3 &\equiv& 6 \times 3 &=& 18 &\equiv& 4 \pmod 7 \\
3^5 &=& 243 &=& 3^4 \times 3 &\equiv& 4 \times 3 &=& 12 &\equiv& 5 \pmod 7 \\
3^6 &=& 729 &=& 3^5 \times 3 &\equiv& 5 \times 3 &=& 15 &\equiv& 1 \pmod 7 \\
\end{array}
</math>
 
Here we see that the period of 3<sup>''k''</sup> modulo 7 is 6.  The remainders in the period, which are 3, 2, 6, 4, 5, 1, form a rearrangement of all nonzero remainders modulo 7, implying that 3 is indeed a primitive root modulo 7. Curiously, permutations created in this way (and their circular shifts) have been shown to be [[Costas array#Welch|Costas arrays]].
 
==Definition==
 
If ''n''  is a positive prime [[integer]], the integers between 1 and ''n''&minus;1 which are [[coprime]] to ''n'' (or equivalently, the [[congruence class]]es [[coprime]] to ''n'') form a [[group (mathematics)|group]] with multiplication [[Modular arithmetic|modulo]] ''n'' as the operation; it is denoted by [[multiplicative group of integers modulo n|'''Z'''<sub>''n''</sub><sup>&times;</sup>]] and is called the [[group of units]] modulo ''n'' or the group of primitive classes modulo ''n''. As explained in the article [[multiplicative group of integers modulo n|multiplicative group of integers modulo ''n'']], this group is [[cyclic group|cyclic]] [[if and only if]] ''n'' is equal to 2, 4, ''p''<sup>''k''</sup>, or 2 ''p''<sup>''k''</sup> where ''p''<sup>''k''</sup> is a power of an odd [[prime number]].<ref>{{MathWorld|title=Modulo Multiplication Group|urlname=ModuloMultiplicationGroup}}
</ref><ref>[http://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php/Primitive_root Primitive root], [[Encyclopedia of Mathematics]]</ref> A [[generating set of a group|generator]] of this cyclic group is called a '''primitive root modulo ''n''''', or a '''primitive element of Z'''<sub>''n''</sub><sup>&times;</sup>.
 
The order of (i.e. the number of elements in) '''Z'''<sub>''n''</sub><sup>&times;</sup> is given by [[Euler's totient function]] <math>\varphi\left(n\right).</math> [[Euler's theorem]] says that ''a''<sup>φ(''n'')</sup> ≡ 1 (mod ''n'') for every ''a'' coprime to ''n''; the lowest power of ''a'' which is congruent to 1 modulo ''n'' is called the [[multiplicative order]] of ''a'' modulo ''n''. In particular, for ''a'' to be a primitive root modulo ''n'', φ(''n'') has to be the smallest power of ''a'' which is congruent to 1 modulo ''n''.
 
==Examples==
 
For example, if ''n'' = 14 then the elements of '''Z'''<sub>''n''</sub><sup>&times;</sup> are the congruence classes {1, 3, 5, 9, 11, 13}; there are φ(14) = 6 of them. Here is a table of their powers modulo 14:
 
<code>
  x    x, x<sup>2</sup>, x<sup>3</sup>, ... (mod 14)
  1 :  1
  3 :  3,  9, 13, 11,  5,  1 
  5 :  5, 11, 13,  9,  3,  1
  9 :  9, 11,  1
11 :  11,  9,  1
13 :  13,  1
</code>
 
The order of 1 is 1, the orders of 3 and 5 are 6, the orders of 9 and 11 are 3, and the order of 13 is 2. Thus, 3 and 5 are the primitive roots modulo 14.
 
For a second example let ''n'' = 15. The elements of '''Z'''<sub>15</sub><sup>&times;</sup> are the congruence classes {1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14}; there are φ(15) = 8 of them.
 
<code>
  x    x, x<sup>2</sup>, x<sup>3</sup>, ... (mod 15)
  1 :  1
  2 :  2,  4,  8, 1 
  4 :  4,  1
  7 :  7,  4, 13, 1
  8 :  8,  4,  2, 1
11 :  11,  1
13 :  13,  4,  7, 1
14 :  14,  1
</code>
 
Since there is no number whose order is 8, there are no primitive roots modulo 15.
 
===Table of primitive roots===
 
This is Gauss's table of  '''the''' primitive roots from the  ''Disquisitiones''. Unlike most modern authors he did not always choose the smallest primitive root. Instead, he chose 10 if it is a primitive root; if it isn't, he chose whichever root gives 10 the smallest index, and, if there is more than one, chose the smallest of them. This is not only to make hand calculation easier, but is used in  § VI where the periodic decimal expansions of rational numbers are investigated.
 
The rows of the table are labelled with the prime powers (excepting 2, 4, and 8) less than 100; the second column is a primitive root modulo that number. The columns are labelled with the primes less than 97. The entry in row ''p'' column ''q'' is the index of ''q'' modulo ''p'' for the given root.
<blockquote>For example, in row 11, 2 is given as the primitive root, and in column 5 the entry is 4. This means that 2<sup>4</sup> = 16 &equiv; 5 (mod 11). </blockquote>For the index of a composite number, add the indices of its prime factors.<blockquote>For example, in row 11, the index of 6 is the sum of the indices for 2 and 3: 2<sup>1 + 8</sup> = 512 &equiv; 6 (mod 11). The index of 25 is twice the index 5: 2<sup>8</sup> = 256 &equiv; 25 (mod 11). (Of course, since 25 &equiv; 3 (mod 11), the entry for 3 is 8).</blockquote>
 
The table is straightforward for the odd prime powers. But the powers of 2, (16, 32, and 64) do not have primitive roots; instead, the powers of 5 account for one-half of the odd numbers less than the power of 2, and their negatives modulo the power of 2 account for the other half. All powers of 5 are ≡ 5 or 1 (mod 8); the columns headed by numbers ≡ 3 or 7 (mod 8) contain the index of its negative.
<blockquote>For example, modulo 32 the index for 7 is 2, and 5<sup>2</sup> = 25 &equiv; &ndash;7 (mod 32), but the entry for 17 is 4, and 5<sup>4</sup> = 625 &equiv; 17 (mod 32).</blockquote>
 
{|  class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" cellpadding="2"
|+ Primitive roots and indices
(other columns are the indices of integers under respective column headings)
|-
| width="25" | ''n''
| width="25" | root
! width="25" | 2
! width="25" | 3
! width="25" | 5
! width="25" | 7
! width="25" | 11
| width="10" rowspan="34" | &nbsp;
! width="25" | 13
! width="25" | 17
! width="25" | 19
! width="25" | 23
! width="25" | 29
| width="10" rowspan="34" | &nbsp;
! width="25" | 31
! width="25" | 37
! width="25" | 41
! width="25" | 43
! width="25" | 47
| width="10" rowspan="34" | &nbsp;
! width="25" | 53
! width="25" | 59
! width="25" | 61
! width="25" | 67
! width="25" | 71
| width="10" rowspan="34" | &nbsp;
! width="25" | 73
! width="25" | 79
! width="25" | 83
! width="25" | 89
|-
!  3 || 2
| 1
|-
!  5 || 2
| 1 || 3
|-
!  7 || 3
| 2 || 1 || 5
|-
!  9 ||2
| 1 || * || 5 || 4 
|-
!  11 || 2
| 1 || 8 || 4 || 7
|-
!  13 || 6
| 5 || 8 || 9 || 7 || 11
|-
!  16 || 5
| * || 3 || 1 || 2 || 1 || 3
|-
! 17 || 10
| 10 || 11 || 7 || 9 || 13 || 12
|-
!  19 || 10
| 17 || 5 || 2 || 12 || 6 || 13 || 8
|-
!  23 || 10
| 8 || 20 || 15 || 21 || 3 || 12 || 17 || 5
|-
!  25 || 2
| 1 || 7 || * || 5 || 16  || 19 || 13 || 18 || 11 
|-
!  27 || 2
| 1 || * || 5 || 16 || 13 || 8 || 15 || 12 || 11 
|-
!  29 || 10
| 11 || 27 || 18 || 20 || 23 || 2 || 7 || 15 || 24
|-
!  31 || 17
| 12 || 13 || 20 || 4 || 29 || 23 || 1 || 22 || 21 || 27
|-
!  32 || 5
| * || 3 || 1 || 2 || 5 || 7 || 4 || 7 || 6 || 3 || 0 
|-
!  37 || 5
| 11 || 34 || 1 || 28 || 6 || 13 || 5 || 25 || 21 || 15 || 27
|- 
!  41 || 6
| 26 || 15 || 22 || 39 || 3 || 31 || 33 || 9 || 36 || 7 || 28 || 32
|-
! 43 || 28
| 39 || 17 || 5 || 7 || 6 || 40 || 16 || 29 || 20 || 25 || 32 || 35 || 18
|-
!  47 || 10
| 30 || 18 || 17 || 38 || 27 || 3 || 42 || 29 || 39 || 43 || 5 || 24 || 25 || 37
|-
!  49 || 10
| 2 || 13 || 41 || * || 16 || 9 || 31 || 35 || 32 || 24 || 7 || 38 || 27 || 36 || 23
|-
!  53 ||26
| 25 || 9 || 31 || 38 || 46 || 28 || 42 || 41 || 39 || 6 || 45 || 22 || 33 || 30 || 8
|-
!  59 || 10
| 25 || 32 || 34 || 44 || 45 || 28 || 14 || 22 || 27 || 4 || 7 || 41 || 2 || 13 || 53 || 28
|-
!  61 || 10
| 47 || 42 || 14 || 23 || 45 || 20 || 49 || 22 || 39 || 25 || 13 || 33 || 18 || 41 || 40 || 51 || 17
|-
!  64 || 5
| * || 3 || 1 || 10 || 5 || 15 || 12 || 7 || 14 || 11 || 8 || 9 || 14 || 13 || 12 || 5 || 1 || 3
|-
!  67  || 12
| 29 || 9 || 39 || 7 || 61 || 23 || 8 || 26 || 20 || 22 || 43 || 44 || 19 || 63 || 64 || 3 || 54 || 5
|-
!  71 || 62
| 58 || 18 || 14 || 33 || 43 || 27 || 7 || 38 || 5 || 4 || 13 || 30 || 55 || 44 || 17 || 59 || 29 || 37 || 11
|-
!  73 || 5
| 8 || 6 || 1 || 33 || 55 || 59 || 21 || 62 || 46 || 35 || 11 || 64 || 4 || 51 || 31 || 53 || 5 || 58 || 50 || 44
|-
!  79 || 29
| 50 || 71 || 34 || 19 || 70 || 74 || 9 || 10 || 52 || 1 || 76 || 23 || 21 || 47 || 55 || 7 || 17 || 75 || 54 || 33 || 4
|-
!  81 || 11
| 25 || * || 35 || 22 || 1 || 38 || 15 || 12 || 5 || 7 || 14 || 24 || 29 || 10 || 13 || 45 || 53 || 4 || 20 || 33 || 48 || 52
|-
!  83 || 50
| 3 || 52 || 81 || 24 || 72 || 67 || 4 || 59 || 16 || 36 || 32 || 60 || 38 || 49 || 69 || 13 || 20 || 34 || 53 || 17 || 43 || 47
|-
!  89 || 30
| 72 || 87 || 18 || 7 || 4 || 65 || 82 || 53 || 31 || 29 || 57 || 77 || 67 || 59 || 34 || 10 || 45 || 19 || 32 || 26 || 68 || 46 || 27
|-
!  97 || 10
| 86 || 2 || 11 || 53 || 82 || 83 || 19 || 27 || 79 || 47 || 26 || 41 || 71 || 44 || 60 || 14 || 65 || 32 || 51 || 25 || 20 || 42 || 91 || 18
|-
| width="25" | &nbsp;
| width="25" | &nbsp;
! width="25" | 2
! width="25" | 3
! width="25" | 5
! width="25" | 7
! width="25" | 11
! width="25" | 13
! width="25" | 17
! width="25" | 19
! width="25" | 23
! width="25" | 29
! width="25" | 31
! width="25" | 37
! width="25" | 41
! width="25" | 43
! width="25" | 47
! width="25" | 53
! width="25" | 59
! width="25" | 61
! width="25" | 67
! width="25" | 71
! width="25" | 73
! width="25" | 79
! width="25" | 83
! width="25" | 89
|}
 
The sequence of smallest primitive roots (which is not the same as the sequence of primitive roots in the above table) may be found at {{OEIS|id=A046145}}.
 
===Arithmetic facts===
 
Gauss proved<ref>Gauss, DA, art. 80</ref> that for any prime number ''p'' (with the sole exception of ''p'' = 3), the product of its primitive roots is congruent to 1 modulo ''p''.
 
He also proved<ref>Gauss, DA, art. 81</ref> that for any prime number ''p'', the sum of its primitive roots is congruent to μ(''p'' &ndash; 1) modulo ''p'' where μ is the [[Möbius function]].
 
<blockquote>For example
 
:''p'' = 3,  &mu;(2) = &ndash;1. The primitive root is 2.
 
:''p'' = 5,  &mu;(4) = 0. The primitive roots are 2 and 3.
 
:''p'' = 7,  &mu;(6) = 1. The primitive roots are 3 and 5.
 
:''p'' = 31, &mu;(30) = &ndash;1. The primitive roots are 3, 11, 12, 13, 17 &equiv; &ndash;14, 21 &equiv; &ndash;10, 22 &equiv; &ndash;9, and 24 &equiv; &ndash;7.
 
::Their product 970377408 &equiv; 1 (mod 31) and their sum 123 &equiv; &ndash;1 (mod 31).
 
::3×11 = 33 &equiv; 2
::12×13 = 156 &equiv; 1
::(&ndash;14)×(&ndash;10) = 140 &equiv; 16
::(&ndash;9)×(&ndash;7) = 63 &equiv; 1, and 2×1×16×1 = 32 &equiv; 1 (mod 31).
 
</blockquote>
 
==Finding primitive roots==
 
No simple general formula to compute primitive roots modulo ''n'' is known. There are however methods to locate a primitive root that are faster than simply trying out all candidates. If the [[multiplicative order]] of a number ''m'' modulo ''n'' is equal to [[Euler's phi function|<math>\varphi\left(n\right)</math>]] (the order of '''Z'''<sub>''n''</sub><sup>×</sup>), then it is a primitive root. In fact the converse is true: If ''m'' is a primitive root modulo ''n'', then the multiplicative order of ''m'' is [[Euler's phi function|<math>\varphi\left(n\right)</math>]]. We can use this to test for primitive roots.
 
First, compute <math>\varphi\left(n\right)</math>. Then determine the different [[prime factor]]s of <math>\varphi\left(n\right)</math>, say ''p''<sub>1</sub>, ..., ''p''<sub>''k''</sub>. Now, for every element ''m'' of '''Z'''<sub>''n''</sub><sup>*</sup>, compute
:<math>m^{\varphi(n)/p_i}\mod n \qquad\mbox{  for } i=1,\ldots,k</math>
using a fast algorithm for [[modular exponentiation]] such as [[exponentiation by squaring]]. A number ''m'' for which these ''k'' results are all different from 1 is a primitive root.
 
The number of primitive roots modulo ''n'', if there are any, is equal to<ref>{{OEIS|A010554}} </ref>  
:<math>\varphi\left(\varphi\left(n\right)\right)</math>
since, in general, a cyclic group with ''r'' elements has <math>\varphi\left(r\right)</math> generators.
 
If ''g'' is a primitive root modulo ''p'', then ''g'' is a primitive root modulo all powers ''p''<sup>''k''</sup> unless ''g'' <sup>''p'' &ndash; 1</sup> ≡ 1 (mod ''p''<sup>2</sup>); in that case, ''g'' + ''p'' is.<ref>This and the next assertion are in Cohen, p.26</ref>
 
If ''g'' is a primitive root modulo ''p''<sup>''k''</sup>, then ''g'' or ''g'' + ''p''<sup>''k''</sup> (whichever one is odd) is a primitive root modulo 2''p''<sup>''k''</sup>.
 
Finding primitive roots modulo ''p'' is also equivalent to finding the roots of the ''(p-1)''<sup>''th''</sup> [[cyclotomic polynomial]] modulo ''p''.
 
==Order of magnitude of primitive roots==
 
The least primitive root  ''g''<sub>''p''</sub> modulo ''p'' (in the range 1, 2, ..., ''p''&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;1) is generally small.
 
===Upper bounds===
Burgess (1962) proved<ref name="Ribenboim, p.24"/> that for every ε > 0 there is a ''C'' such that <math>g_p < Cp^{\frac{1}{4}+\epsilon}.</math>
 
[[Emil Grosswald|Grosswald]] (1981) proved<ref name="Ribenboim, p.24"/> that if <math>p > e^{e^{24}}</math>, then <math>g_p < p^{0.499}</math>.
 
Shoup (1990, 1992) proved,<ref>{{harvnb|Bach|Shallit|1996|p=254}}</ref> assuming the [[generalized Riemann hypothesis]], that ''g''<sub>''p''</sub>&nbsp;=&nbsp;O(log<sup>6</sup>&nbsp;''p'').
 
===Lower bounds===
Fridlander (1949) and Salié (1950) proved<ref name="Ribenboim, p.24">{{Harvnb|Ribenboim|1996|p=24}}</ref> that there is a positive constant ''C''  such that for infinitely many primes ''g''<sub>''p''</sub>&nbsp;>&nbsp;''C''&nbsp;log&nbsp;''p''.
 
It can be proved<ref name="Ribenboim, p.24"/> in an elementary manner that for any positive integer ''M'' there are infinitely many primes such that ''M'' < ''g''<sub>''p''</sub> < ''p''&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;''M''.
 
== Applications ==
 
Primitive root modulo n is often used in [[cryptography]], including the [[Diffie–Hellman key exchange]] scheme.
 
==See also==
* [[Artin's conjecture on primitive roots]]
* [[Dirichlet character]]
* [[Wilson's theorem#Gauss.27s generalization|Gauss's generalization of Wilson's theorem]]
* [[Multiplicative order]]
* [[Root of unity modulo n]]
 
==Notes==
 
{{reflist}}
 
==References==
 
The ''[[Disquisitiones Arithmeticae]]'' has been translated from Gauss's Ciceronian Latin into English and German. The German edition includes all of his papers on number theory: all the proofs of quadratic reciprocity, the determination of the sign of the Gauss sum, the investigations into biquadratic reciprocity, and unpublished notes.
 
*{{citation
  | last1 = Bach  | first1 = Eric
  | last2 = Shallit | first2 = Jeffrey
  | title = Algorithmic Number Theory (Vol I: Efficient Algorithms)
  | publisher = [[The MIT Press]]
  | location = Cambridge
  | year = 1996
  | isbn = 0-262-02405-5}}
*{{citation
  | last1 = Cohen  | first1 = Henri
  | title = A Course in Computational Algebraic Number Theory
  | publisher = [[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]
  | location = Berlin
  | year = 1993
  | isbn = 3-540-55640-0}}
*{{citation
  | last1 = Gauss  | first1 = Carl Friedrich
  | authorlink1 = Carl Friedrich Gauss
  | last2 = Clarke | first2 = Arthur A. (translator into English) 
  | title = Disquisitiones Arithemeticae (Second, corrected edition)
  | publisher = [[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]
  | location = New York
  | year = 1986
  | isbn = 0-387-96254-9}}
*{{citation
  | last1 = Gauss  | first1 = Carl Friedrich
  | authorlink1 = Carl Friedrich Gauss
  | last2 = Maser | first2 = H. (translator into German) 
  | title = Untersuchungen uber hohere Arithmetik (Disquisitiones Arithemeticae & other papers on number theory) (Second edition)
  | publisher = Chelsea
  | location = New York
  | year = 1965
  | isbn = 0-8284-0191-8}}
*{{Citation
  |authorlink=Øystein Ore
  |last = Ore
  |first = Oystein
  |title = Number Theory and Its History 
  |publisher = Dover
  |year = 1988
  |pages =  284–302
  |isbn = 0-486-65620-9}}
*{{Citation
  | last1 = Ribenboim  | first1 = Paulo
  | title = The New Book of Prime Number Records
  | publisher = [[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]
  | location = New York
  | year = 1996
  | isbn = 0-387-94457-5}}
 
==External links==
*{{MathWorld |title=Primitive Root |id=PrimitiveRoot}}
*This site has a [http://www.math.mtu.edu/mathlab/COURSES/holt/dnt/quadratic4.html primitive root calculator] applet.
*A calculator of all primitive roots modulo p is located [http://www.bluetulip.org/programs/primitive.html here].
 
[[Category:Modular arithmetic]]

Revision as of 02:17, 4 March 2014

This is a question that occupies the minds of many members of the guy varieties all over the planet. In the following sections of the post, I may attempt to answer most of the questions or doubts that you have, pertaining to the numbers or the statistics regarding men's perfect weight. Read ahead to know more.

The research was conducted by Eric J. Jacobs, PhD, and colleagues at the American Cancer Society (Atlanta), plus associated 56,343 females plus 48,500 guys. Waists of 47 inches or even more in men, plus 42 inches or more in females, were tied to about twice the risk of death throughout the time passage of the study.

I have usually loved cycling even because a child. I got my spouse a cycle for Valentine's Day. He never waist to height ratio used it and six months later I decided to put it to wise use. So every morning after I loaded my kid into his school bus I would go cycling. I commonly did between 3 to 5 kms each morning plus came house.

Unfortunately, genetics additionally plays a factor in body fat fat and the location of stored fat. Lack of exercise furthermore plays a big role. A sedentary lifestyle will greatly grow the fatand usually ultimately cause disease plus illness. Not only is fat unsightly plus harmful, nevertheless where it's stored is dangerous.

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If you find the only trouble you have when we buy jeans is a pulling or tightness inside the crotch, it can be because a body is longer plus we have short legs. Try purchasing Carhartt jeans inside a petite size regardless of your height.

If you want to lose fat to reach a comfortable body image or shape, do it with exercise, weight loss medications, natural supplements or dieting. For weight gain, make changes in the diet. The three vital ingredients Body form, Image and Weight reflects a personality. So take an effort plus create yourself comfortable with a shape, image plus weight.

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