Chemistry

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Chemistry, a branch of physical science, is the study of the composition, structure, properties and change of matter. Chemistry is chiefly concerned with atoms and their interactions with other atoms - for example, the properties of the chemical bonds formed between atoms to create chemical compounds. As well as this, interactions including atoms and other phenomena—electrons and various forms of energy—are considered, such as photochemical reactions, oxidation-reduction reactions, changes in phases of matter, and separation of mixtures. Finally, properties of matter such as alloys or polymers are considered.

Chemistry is sometimes called "the central science" because it bridges other natural sciences like physics, geology and biology with each other. Chemistry is a branch of physical science but distinct from physics.

The etymology of the word chemistry has been much disputed. The origin of chemistry can be traced to certain practices, known as alchemy, which had been practiced for several millennia in various parts of the world, particularly the Middle East.

Etymology

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The word chemistry comes from the word alchemy, an earlier set of practices that encompassed elements of chemistry, metallurgy, philosophy, astrology, astronomy, mysticism and medicine; it is commonly thought of as the quest to turn lead or another common starting material into gold. Alchemy, which was practiced around 330, is the study of the composition of waters, movement, growth, embodying, disembodying, drawing the spirits from bodies and bonding the spirits within bodies (Zosimos). An alchemist was called a 'chemist' in popular speech, and later the suffix "-ry" was added to this to describe the art of the chemist as "chemistry".

The word alchemy in turn is derived from the Arabic word al-kīmīā (الکیمیاء). In origin, the term is borrowed from the Greek χημία or χημεία. This may have Egyptian origins. Many believe that al-kīmīā is derived from the Greek χημία, which is in turn derived from the word Chemi or Kimi, which is the ancient name of Egypt in Egyptian. Alternately, al-kīmīā may be derived from χημεία, meaning "cast together".

Definition

In retrospect, the definition of chemistry has changed over time, as new discoveries and theories add to the functionality of the science. The term "chymistry", in the view of noted scientist Robert Boyle in 1661, meant the subject of the material principles of mixed bodies. In 1663, "chymistry" meant a scientific art, by which one learns to dissolve bodies, and draw from them the different substances on their composition, and how to unite them again, and exalt them to a higher perfection - this definition was used by chemist Christopher Glaser.

The 1730 definition of the word "chemistry", as used by Georg Ernst Stahl, meant the art of resolving mixed, compound, or aggregate bodies into their principles; and of composing such bodies from those principles. In 1837, Jean-Baptiste Dumas considered the word "chemistry" to refer to the science concerned with the laws and effects of molecular forces. This definition further evolved until, in 1947, it came to mean the science of substances: their structure, their properties, and the reactions that change them into other substances - a characterization accepted by Linus Pauling. More recently, in 1998, the definition of "chemistry" was broadened to mean the study of matter and the changes it undergoes, as phrased by Professor Raymond Chang.

History

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Democritus' atomist philosophy was later adopted by Epicurus (341–270 BCE).

Early civilizations, such as the Egyptians and Babylonians amassed practical knowledge concerning the arts of metallurgy, pottery and dyes, but didn't develop a systematic theory.

A basic chemical hypothesis first emerged in Classical Greece with the theory of four elements as propounded definitively by Aristotle stating that that fire, air, earth and water were the fundamental elements from which everything is formed as a combination. Greek atomism dates back to 440 BC, arising in works by philosophers such as Democritus and Epicurus. In 50 BC, the Roman philosopher Lucretius expanded upon the theory in his book De Rerum Natura (On The Nature of Things). Unlike modern concepts of science, Greek atomism was purely philosophical in nature, with little concern for empirical observations and no concern for chemical experiments.

In the Hellenistic world the art of alchemy first proliferated, mingling magic and occultism into the study of natural substances with the ultimate goal of transmuting elements into gold and discovering the elixir of eternal life. Alchemy was discovered and practised widely throughout the Arab world after the Muslim Conquest, and from there, diffused into medieval and Rennaissance Europe through Latin translations.

Chemistry as science

Under the influence of the new empirical methods propounded by Sir Francis Bacon and others, a group of chemists at Oxford, Robert Boyle, Robert Hooke and John Mayow began to reshape the old achemical traditions into a scientific discipline. Boyle in particular is regarded as the founding father of chemistry due to his most important work, the classic chemistry text The Sceptical Chymist where the differentiation is made between the claims of alchemy and the empirical scientific discoveries of the new chemistry. He formulated Boyle's law, rejected the classical "four elements" and proposed a mechanistic alternative of atoms and chemical reactions that could be subject to rigorous experiment.

Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier is considered the "Father of Modern Chemistry".

The theory of phlogiston (a substance at the root of all combustion) was propounded by the German Georg Ernst Stahl in the early 18th century and was only overturned by the end of the century by the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier, the chemical analogue of Newton in physics; who did more than any other to establish the new science on proper theoretical footing, by elucidating the principle of conservation of mass and developing a new system of chemical nomenclature used to this day.

Prior to his work, though, many important discoveries had been made, specifically relating to the nature of 'air' which was discovered to be composed of many different gases. The Scottish chemist Joseph Black (the first experimental chemist) and the Dutchman J. B. van Helmont discovered carbon dioxide, or what Black called 'fixed air' in 1754; Henry Cavendish discovered hydrogen and elucidated its' properties and Joseph Priestley and, independently, Carl Wilhelm Scheele isolated pure oxygen.

English scientist John Dalton proposed the modern theory of atoms in his book (1803) Atomic Theory; that all substances are composed of indivisible 'atoms' of matter and that different atoms have varying atomic weights.

The development of the electrochemical theory of chemical combinations occurred in the early 19th century as the result of the work of two scientists in particular, J. J. Berzelius and Humphry Davy, made possible by the prior invention of the voltaic pile by Alessandro Volta. Davy discovered nine new elements including the alkali metals by extracting them from their oxides with electric current.

British William Prout first proposed ordering all the elements by their atomic weight as all atoms had a weight that was an exact multiple of the atomic weight of hydrogen. J. A. R. Newlands devised an early table of elements, which was then developed into the modern periodic table of elements by the German Julius Lothar Meyer and the Russian Dmitri Mendeleev in the 1860s. The inert gases, later called the noble gases were discovered by William Ramsay in collaboration with Lord Rayleigh at the end of the century, thereby filling in the basic structure of the table.

Organic chemistry was developed by Justus von Liebig and others, following Friedrich Wohler's synthesis of urea which proved that living organisms were, in theory, reducible to chemistry. Other crucial 19th century advances were; an understanding of valence bonding (Edward Frankland in 1852) and the application of thermodynamics to chemistry (J. W. Gibbs and Svante Arrhenius in the 1870s).

Chemical structure

Top: Expected results: alpha particles passing through the plum pudding model of the atom undisturbed.
Bottom: Observed results: a small portion of the particles were deflected, indicating a small, concentrated charge.

At the turn of the twentieth century the theoretical underpinnings of chemistry were finally understood due to a series of remarkable discoveries that succeeded in probing and discovering the very nature of the internal structure of atoms. In 1897, J. J. Thomson of Cambridge University discovered the electron and soon after the French scientist Becquerel as well as the couple Pierre and Marie Curie investigated the phenomenon of radioactivity. In a series of pioneering scattering experiments Ernest Rutherford at the University of Manchester discovered the internal structure of the atom and the existence of the proton, classified and explained the different types of radioactivity and successfully transmuted the first element by bombarding nitrogen with alpha particles.

His work on atomic structure was improved on by his students, the Danish physicist Niels Bohr and Henry Mosely. The electronic theory of chemical bonds and molecular orbitals was developed by the American scientists Linus Pauling and Gilbert N. Lewis.

The year 2011 was declared by the United Nations as the International Year of Chemistry. It was an initiative of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, and of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization and involves chemical societies, academics, and institutions worldwide and relied on individual initiatives to organize local and regional activities.

Principles of modern chemistry

Laboratory, Institute of Biochemistry, University of Cologne.

The current model of atomic structure is the quantum mechanical model. Traditional chemistry starts with the study of elementary particles, atoms, molecules, substances, metals, crystals and other aggregates of matter. This matter can be studied in solid, liquid, or gas states, in isolation or in combination. The interactions, reactions and transformations that are studied in chemistry are usually the result of interactions between atoms, leading to rearrangements of the chemical bonds which hold atoms together. Such behaviors are studied in a chemistry laboratory.

The chemistry laboratory stereotypically uses various forms of laboratory glassware. However glassware is not central to chemistry, and a great deal of experimental (as well as applied/industrial) chemistry is done without it.

A chemical reaction is a transformation of some substances into one or more different substances. The basis of such a chemical transformation is the rearrangement of electrons in the chemical bonds between atoms. It can be symbolically depicted through a chemical equation, which usually involves atoms as subjects. The number of atoms on the left and the right in the equation for a chemical transformation is equal (when unequal, the transformation by definition is not chemical, but rather a nuclear reaction or radioactive decay). The type of chemical reactions a substance may undergo and the energy changes that may accompany it are constrained by certain basic rules, known as chemical laws.

Energy and entropy considerations are invariably important in almost all chemical studies. Chemical substances are classified in terms of their structure, phase, as well as their chemical compositions. They can be analyzed using the tools of chemical analysis, e.g. spectroscopy and chromatography. Scientists engaged in chemical research are known as chemists. Most chemists specialize in one or more sub-disciplines. Several concepts are essential for the study of chemistry; some of them are:

Matter

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Atom

A diagram of an atom based on the Rutherford model

The atom is the basic unit of chemistry. It consists of a dense core called the atomic nucleus surrounded by a space called the electron cloud. The nucleus is made up of positively charged protons and uncharged neutrons (together called nucleons), while the electron cloud consists of negatively-charged electrons which orbit the nucleus. In a neutral atom, the negatively-charged electrons balance out the positive charge of the protons. The nucleus is dense; the mass of a nucleon is 1,836 times that of an electron, yet the radius of an atom is about 10,000 times that of its nucleus.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

The atom is also the smallest entity that can be envisaged to retain the chemical properties of the element, such as electronegativity, ionization potential, preferred oxidation state(s), coordination number, and preferred types of bonds to form (e.g., metallic, ionic, covalent).

Element

Standard form of the periodic table of chemical elements. The colors represent different categories of elements

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A chemical element is a pure substance which is composed of a single type of atom, characterized by its particular number of protons in the nuclei of its atoms, known as the atomic number and represented by the symbol Z. The mass number is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus. Although all the nuclei of all atoms belonging to one element will have the same atomic number, they may not necessarily have the same mass number; atoms of an element which have different mass numbers are known as isotopes. For example, all atoms with 6 protons in their nuclei are atoms of the chemical element carbon, but atoms of carbon may have mass numbers of 12 or 13.Template:Sfn

The standard presentation of the chemical elements is in the periodic table, which orders elements by atomic number. The periodic table is arranged in groups, or columns, and periods, or rows. The periodic table is useful in identifying periodic trends.Template:Sfn

Compound

Carbon dioxide (CO₂), an example of a chemical compound

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A compound is a pure chemical substance composed of more than one element. The properties of a compound bear little similarity to those of its elements.Template:Sfn The standard nomenclature of compounds is set by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). Organic compounds are named according to the organic nomenclature system. Inorganic compounds are named according to the inorganic nomenclature system. In addition the Chemical Abstracts Service has devised a method to index chemical substances. In this scheme each chemical substance is identifiable by a number known as its CAS registry number.

Molecule

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File:Caffeine (1) 3D ball.png

A ball-and-stick representation of the caffeine molecule (C₈H₁₀N₄O₂).

A molecule is the smallest indivisible portion of a pure chemical substance that has its unique set of chemical properties, that is, its potential to undergo a certain set of chemical reactions with other substances. However, this definition only works well for substances that are composed of molecules, which is not true of many substances (see below). Molecules are typically a set of atoms bound together by covalent bonds, such that the structure is electrically neutral and all valence electrons are paired with other electrons either in bonds or in lone pairs.

Thus, molecules exist as electrically neutral units, unlike ions. When this rule is broken, giving the "molecule" a charge, the result is sometimes named a molecular ion or a polyatomic ion. However, the discrete and separate nature of the molecular concept usually requires that molecular ions be present only in well-separated form, such as a directed beam in a vacuum in a mass spectrometer. Charged polyatomic collections residing in solids (for example, common sulfate or nitrate ions) are generally not considered "molecules" in chemistry.

File:Benzene-2D-full.svg

A 2-D skeletal model of a benzene molecule (C₆H₆)

The "inert" or noble gas elements (helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon) are composed of lone atoms as their smallest discrete unit, but the other isolated chemical elements consist of either molecules or networks of atoms bonded to each other in some way. Identifiable molecules compose familiar substances such as water, air, and many organic compounds like alcohol, sugar, gasoline, and the various pharmaceuticals.

However, not all substances or chemical compounds consist of discrete molecules, and indeed most of the solid substances that makes up the solid crust, mantle, and core of the Earth are chemical compounds without molecules. These other types of substances, such as ionic compounds and network solids, are organized in such a way as to lack the existence of identifiable molecules per se. Instead, these substances are discussed in terms of formula units or unit cells as the smallest repeating structure within the substance. Examples of such substances are mineral salts (such as table salt), solids like carbon and diamond, metals, and familiar silica and silicate minerals such as quartz and granite.

One of the main characteristics of a molecule is its geometry often called its structure. While the structure of diatomic, triatomic or tetra atomic molecules may be trivial, (linear, angular pyramidal etc.) the structure of polyatomic molecules, that are constituted of more than six atoms (of several elements) can be crucial for its chemical nature.

Substance and mixture

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Mole and amount of substance

Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church. The mole is a unit of measurement that denotes an amount of substance (also called chemical amount). The mole is defined as the number of atoms found in exactly 0.012 kilogram (or 12 grams) of carbon-12, where the carbon-12 atoms are unbound, at rest and in their ground state. The number of entities per mole is known as the Avogadro constant, and is determined empirically to be approximately 6.022Template:E mol⁻¹.Template:Sfn Molar concentration is the amount of a particular substance per volume of solution, and is commonly reported in moldm⁻³.Template:Sfn

Phase

File:Phase changes.svg

Example of phase changes

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In addition to the specific chemical properties that distinguish different chemical classifications chemicals can exist in several phases. For the most part, the chemical classifications are independent of these bulk phase classifications; however, some more exotic phases are incompatible with certain chemical properties. A phase is a set of states of a chemical system that have similar bulk structural properties, over a range of conditions, such as pressure or temperature.

Physical properties, such as density and refractive index tend to fall within values characteristic of the phase. The phase of matter is defined by the phase transition, which is when energy put into or taken out of the system goes into rearranging the structure of the system, instead of changing the bulk conditions.

Sometimes the distinction between phases can be continuous instead of having a discrete boundary, in this case the matter is considered to be in a supercritical state. When three states meet based on the conditions, it is known as a triple point and since this is invariant, it is a convenient way to define a set of conditions.

The most familiar examples of phases are solids, liquids, and gases. Many substances exhibit multiple solid phases. For example, there are three phases of solid iron (alpha, gamma, and delta) that vary based on temperature and pressure. A principal difference between solid phases is the crystal structure, or arrangement, of the atoms. Another phase commonly encountered in the study of chemistry is the aqueous phase, which is the state of substances dissolved in aqueous solution (that is, in water).

Less familiar phases include plasmas, Bose-Einstein condensates and fermionic condensates and the paramagnetic and ferromagnetic phases of magnetic materials. While most familiar phases deal with three-dimensional systems, it is also possible to define analogs in two-dimensional systems, which has received attention for its relevance to systems in biology.

Bonding

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File:Ionic bonding animation.gif

An animation of the process of ionic bonding between sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) to form sodium chloride, or common table salt. Ionic bonding involves one atom taking valence electrons from another (as opposed to sharing, which occurs in covalent bonding

Atoms sticking together in molecules or crystals are said to be bonded with one another. A chemical bond may be visualized as the multipole balance between the positive charges in the nuclei and the negative charges oscillating about them. More than simple attraction and repulsion, the energies and distributions characterize the availability of an electron to bond to another atom.

A chemical bond can be a covalent bond, an ionic bond, a hydrogen bond or just because of Van der Waals force. Each of these kinds of bonds is ascribed to some potential. These potentials create the interactions which hold atoms together in molecules or crystals. In many simple compounds, Valence Bond Theory, the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion model (VSEPR), and the concept of oxidation number can be used to explain molecular structure and composition.

An ionic bond is formed when a metal loses one or more of its electrons, becoming a positively charged cation, and the electrons are then gained by the non-metal atom, becoming a negatively charged anion. The two oppositely charged ions attract one another, and the ionic bond is the electrostatic force of attraction between them. For example, sodium (Na), a metal, loses one electron to become an Na⁺ cation while chlorine (Cl), a non-metal, gains this electron to become Cl^-. The ions are held together due to electrostatic attraction, and that compound sodium chloride (NaCl), or common table salt, is formed.

File:Elektronenformel Punkte CH4.svg

In the methane molecule (CH₄), the carbon atom shares a pair of valence electrons with each of the four hydrogen atoms. Thus, the octet rule is satisfied for C-atom (it has eight electrons in its valence shell) and the duet rule is satisfied for the H-atoms (they have two electrons in their valence shells.

In a covalent bond, one or more pairs of valence electrons are shared by two atoms: the resulting electrically neutral group of bonded atoms is termed a molecule. Atoms will share valence electrons in such a way as to create a noble gas electron configuration (eight electrons in their outermost shell) for each atom. Atoms that tend to combine in such a way that they each have eight electrons in their valence shell are said to follow the octet rule. However, some elements like hydrogen and lithium need only two electron in their outermost shell to attain this stable configuration; these atoms are said to follow the duet rule, and in this way they are reaching the electron configuration of the noble gas helium, which has two electrons in its outer shell.

Similarly, theories from classical physics can be used to predict many ionic structures. With more complicated compounds, such as metal complexes, valence bond theory is less applicable and alternative approaches, such as the molecular orbital theory, are generally used. See diagram on electronic orbitals.

Energy

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In the context of chemistry, energy is an attribute of a substance as a consequence of its atomic, molecular or aggregate structure. Since a chemical transformation is accompanied by a change in one or more of these kinds of structures, it is invariably accompanied by an increase or decrease of energy of the substances involved. Some energy is transferred between the surroundings and the reactants of the reaction in the form of heat or light; thus the products of a reaction may have more or less energy than the reactants.

A reaction is said to be exergonic if the final state is lower on the energy scale than the initial state; in the case of endergonic reactions the situation is the reverse. A reaction is said to be exothermic if the reaction releases heat to the surroundings; in the case of endothermic reactions, the reaction absorbs heat from the surroundings.

Chemical reactions are invariably not possible unless the reactants surmount an energy barrier known as the activation energy. The speed of a chemical reaction (at given temperature T) is related to the activation energy E, by the Boltzmann's population factor $e^{-E/kT}$ - that is the probability of a molecule to have energy greater than or equal to E at the given temperature T. This exponential dependence of a reaction rate on temperature is known as the Arrhenius equation. The activation energy necessary for a chemical reaction to occur can be in the form of heat, light, electricity or mechanical force in the form of ultrasound.

A related concept free energy, which also incorporates entropy considerations, is a very useful means for predicting the feasibility of a reaction and determining the state of equilibrium of a chemical reaction, in chemical thermodynamics. A reaction is feasible only if the total change in the Gibbs free energy is negative, $\Delta G\le 0$; if it is equal to zero the chemical reaction is said to be at equilibrium.

There exist only limited possible states of energy for electrons, atoms and molecules. These are determined by the rules of quantum mechanics, which require quantization of energy of a bound system. The atoms/molecules in a higher energy state are said to be excited. The molecules/atoms of substance in an excited energy state are often much more reactive; that is, more amenable to chemical reactions.

The phase of a substance is invariably determined by its energy and the energy of its surroundings. When the intermolecular forces of a substance are such that the energy of the surroundings is not sufficient to overcome them, it occurs in a more ordered phase like liquid or solid as is the case with water (H₂O); a liquid at room temperature because its molecules are bound by hydrogen bonds. Whereas hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) is a gas at room temperature and standard pressure, as its molecules are bound by weaker dipole-dipole interactions.

The transfer of energy from one chemical substance to another depends on the size of energy quanta emitted from one substance. However, heat energy is often transferred more easily from almost any substance to another because the phonons responsible for vibrational and rotational energy levels in a substance have much less energy than photons invoked for the electronic energy transfer. Thus, because vibrational and rotational energy levels are more closely spaced than electronic energy levels, heat is more easily transferred between substances relative to light or other forms of electronic energy. For example, ultraviolet electromagnetic radiation is not transferred with as much efficacy from one substance to another as thermal or electrical energy.

The existence of characteristic energy levels for different chemical substances is useful for their identification by the analysis of spectral lines. Different kinds of spectra are often used in chemical spectroscopy, e.g. IR, microwave, NMR, ESR, etc. Spectroscopy is also used to identify the composition of remote objects - like stars and distant galaxies - by analyzing their radiation spectra.

File:Emission spectrum-Fe.svg

Emission spectrum of iron

The term chemical energy is often used to indicate the potential of a chemical substance to undergo a transformation through a chemical reaction or to transform other chemical substances.

Reaction

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During chemical reactions, bonds between atoms break and form, resulting in different substances with different properties. In a blast furnace, iron oxide, a compound, reacts with carbon monoxide to form iron, one of the chemical elements, and carbon dioxide.

When a chemical substance is transformed as a result of its interaction with another substance or with energy, a chemical reaction is said to have occurred. A chemical reaction is therefore a concept related to the 'reaction' of a substance when it comes in close contact with another, whether as a mixture or a solution; exposure to some form of energy, or both. It results in some energy exchange between the constituents of the reaction as well with the system environment which may be designed vessels which are often laboratory glassware.

Chemical reactions can result in the formation or dissociation of molecules, that is, molecules breaking apart to form two or more smaller molecules, or rearrangement of atoms within or across molecules. Chemical reactions usually involve the making or breaking of chemical bonds. Oxidation, reduction, dissociation, acid-base neutralization and molecular rearrangement are some of the commonly used kinds of chemical reactions.

A chemical reaction can be symbolically depicted through a chemical equation. While in a non-nuclear chemical reaction the number and kind of atoms on both sides of the equation are equal, for a nuclear reaction this holds true only for the nuclear particles viz. protons and neutrons.

The sequence of steps in which the reorganization of chemical bonds may be taking place in the course of a chemical reaction is called its mechanism. A chemical reaction can be envisioned to take place in a number of steps, each of which may have a different speed. Many reaction intermediates with variable stability can thus be envisaged during the course of a reaction. Reaction mechanisms are proposed to explain the kinetics and the relative product mix of a reaction. Many physical chemists specialize in exploring and proposing the mechanisms of various chemical reactions. Several empirical rules, like the Woodward-Hoffmann rules often come handy while proposing a mechanism for a chemical reaction.

According to the IUPAC gold book a chemical reaction is "a process that results in the interconversion of chemical species." Accordingly, a chemical reaction may be an elementary reaction or a stepwise reaction. An additional caveat is made, in that this definition includes cases where the interconversion of conformers is experimentally observable. Such detectable chemical reactions normally involve sets of molecular entities as indicated by this definition, but it is often conceptually convenient to use the term also for changes involving single molecular entities (i.e. 'microscopic chemical events').

Ions and salts

File:Potassium-chloride-3D-ionic.png

The crystal lattice structure of potassium chloride (KCl), a salt which is formed due to the attraction of K⁺ cations and Cl^- anions. Note how the overall charge of the ionic compound is zero.

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An ion is a charged species, an atom or a molecule, that has lost or gained one or more electrons. When an atom loses an electron and thus has more protons than electrons, the atom is a positively-charged ion or cation. When an atom gains an electron and thus has more electrons than protons, the atom is a negatively-charged ion or anion. Cations and anions can form a crystalline lattice of neutral salts, such as the Na⁺ and Cl^- ions forming sodium chloride, or NaCl. Examples of polyatomic ions that do not split up during acid-base reactions are hydroxide (OH⁻) and phosphate (PO₄³⁻).

Plasma is composed of gaseous matter that has been completely ionized, usually through high temperature.

Acidity and basicity

File:Hydrogen-bromide-3D-vdW.png

When hydrogen bromide (HBr), pictured, is dissolved in water, it forms the strong acid hydrobromic acid

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A substance can often be classified as an acid or a base. There are several different theories which explain acid-base behavior. The simplest is Arrhenius theory, which states than an acid is a substance that produces hydronium ions when it is dissolved in water, and a base is one that produces hydroxide ions when dissolved in water. According to Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory, acids are substances that donate a positive hydrogen ion to another substance in a chemical reaction; by extension, a base is the substance which receives that hydrogen ion.

A third common theory is Lewis acid-base theory, which is based on the formation of new chemical bonds. Lewis theory explains that an acid is a substance which is capable of accepting a pair of electrons from another substance during the process of bond formation, while a base is a substance which can provide a pair of electrons to form a new bond. According to this theory, the crucial things being exchanged are charges.Template:Verify credibility There are several other ways in which a substance may be classified as an acid or a base, as is evident in the history of this concept

Acid strength is commonly measured by two methods. One measurement, based on the Arrhenius definition of acidity, is pH, which is a measurement of the hydronium ion concentration in a solution, as expressed on a negative logarithmic scale. Thus, solutions that have a low pH have a high hydronium ion concentration, and can be said to be more acidic. The other measurement, based on the Brønsted–Lowry definition, is the acid dissociation constant (K_a), which measure the relative ability of a substance to act as an acid under the Brønsted–Lowry definition of an acid. That is, substances with a higher K_a are more likely to donate hydrogen ions in chemical reactions than those with lower K_a values.

Redox

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Redox (reduction-oxidation) reactions include all chemical reactions in which atoms have their oxidation state changed by either gaining electrons (reduction) or losing electrons (oxidation). Substances that have the ability to oxidize other substances are said to be oxidative and are known as oxidizing agents, oxidants or oxidizers. An oxidant removes electrons from another substance. Similarly, substances that have the ability to reduce other substances are said to be reductive and are known as reducing agents, reductants, or reducers.

A reductant transfers electrons to another substance, and is thus oxidized itself. And because it "donates" electrons it is also called an electron donor. Oxidation and reduction properly refer to a change in oxidation number—the actual transfer of electrons may never occur. Thus, oxidation is better defined as an increase in oxidation number, and reduction as a decrease in oxidation number.

Equilibrium

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Although the concept of equilibrium is widely used across sciences, in the context of chemistry, it arises whenever a number of different states of the chemical composition are possible. For example, in a mixture of several chemical compounds that can react with one another, or when a substance can be present in more than one kind of phase.

A system of chemical substances at equilibrium, even though having an unchanging composition, is most often not static; molecules of the substances continue to react with one another thus giving rise to a dynamic equilibrium. Thus the concept describes the state in which the parameters such as chemical composition remain unchanged over time.

Chemical laws

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Chemical reactions are governed by certain laws, which have become fundamental concepts in chemistry. Some of them are:

• Avogadro's law
• Beer-Lambert law
• Boyle's law (1662, relating pressure and volume)
• Charles's law (1787, relating volume and temperature)
• Fick's law of diffusion
• Gay-Lussac's law (1809, relating pressure and temperature)
• Le Chatelier's Principle
• Henry's law
• Hess's Law
• Law of conservation of energy leads to the important concepts of equilibrium, thermodynamics, and kinetics.
• Law of conservation of mass continues to be conserved in isolated systems, even in modern physics. However, special relativity shows that due to mass-energy equivalence, whenever non-material "energy" (heat, light, kinetic energy) is removed from a non-isolated system, some mass will be lost with it. High energy losses result in loss of weighable amounts of mass, an important topic in nuclear chemistry.
• Law of definite composition, although in many systems (notably biomacromolecules and minerals) the ratios tend to require large numbers, and are frequently represented as a fraction.
• Law of multiple proportions
• Raoult's Law

Practice

Subdisciplines

Chemistry is typically divided into several major sub-disciplines. There are also several main cross-disciplinary and more specialized fields of chemistry.

• Analytical chemistry is the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure. Analytical chemistry incorporates standardized experimental methods in chemistry. These methods may be used in all subdisciplines of chemistry, excluding purely theoretical chemistry.
• Biochemistry is the study of the chemicals, chemical reactions and chemical interactions that take place in living organisms. Biochemistry and organic chemistry are closely related, as in medicinal chemistry or neurochemistry. Biochemistry is also associated with molecular biology and genetics.
• Inorganic chemistry is the study of the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds. The distinction between organic and inorganic disciplines is not absolute and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of organometallic chemistry.
• Materials chemistry is the preparation, characterization, and understanding of substances with a useful function. The field is a new breadth of study in graduate programs, and it integrates elements from all classical areas of chemistry with a focus on fundamental issues that are unique to materials. Primary systems of study include the chemistry of condensed phases (solids, liquids, polymers) and interfaces between different phases.
• Neurochemistry is the study of neurochemicals; including transmitters, peptides, proteins, lipids, sugars, and nucleic acids; their interactions, and the roles they play in forming, maintaining, and modifying the nervous system.
• Nuclear chemistry is the study of how subatomic particles come together and make nuclei. Modern Transmutation is a large component of nuclear chemistry, and the table of nuclides is an important result and tool for this field.
• Organic chemistry is the study of the structure, properties, composition, mechanisms, and reactions of organic compounds. An organic compound is defined as any compound based on a carbon skeleton.
• Physical chemistry is the study of the physical and fundamental basis of chemical systems and processes. In particular, the energetics and dynamics of such systems and processes are of interest to physical chemists. Important areas of study include chemical thermodynamics, chemical kinetics, electrochemistry, statistical mechanics, spectroscopy, and more recently, astrochemistry. Physical chemistry has large overlap with molecular physics. Physical chemistry involves the use of infinitesimal calculus in deriving equations. It is usually associated with quantum chemistry and theoretical chemistry. Physical chemistry is a distinct discipline from chemical physics, but again, there is very strong overlap.
• Theoretical chemistry is the study of chemistry via fundamental theoretical reasoning (usually within mathematics or physics). In particular the application of quantum mechanics to chemistry is called quantum chemistry. Since the end of the Second World War, the development of computers has allowed a systematic development of computational chemistry, which is the art of developing and applying computer programs for solving chemical problems. Theoretical chemistry has large overlap with (theoretical and experimental) condensed matter physics and molecular physics.

Other disciplines within chemistry are traditionally grouped by the type of matter being studied or the kind of study. These include inorganic chemistry, the study of inorganic matter; organic chemistry, the study of organic (carbon based) matter; biochemistry, the study of substances found in biological organisms; physical chemistry, the study of chemical processes using physical concepts such as thermodynamics and quantum mechanics; and analytical chemistry, the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure. Many more specialized disciplines have emerged in recent years, e.g. neurochemistry the chemical study of the nervous system (see subdisciplines).

Other fields include agrochemistry, astrochemistry (and cosmochemistry), atmospheric chemistry, chemical engineering, chemical biology, chemo-informatics, electrochemistry, environmental chemistry, femtochemistry, flavor chemistry, flow chemistry, geochemistry, green chemistry, histochemistry, history of chemistry, hydrogenation chemistry, immunochemistry, marine chemistry, materials science, mathematical chemistry, mechanochemistry, medicinal chemistry, molecular biology, molecular mechanics, nanotechnology, natural product chemistry, oenology, organometallic chemistry, petrochemistry, pharmacology, photochemistry, physical organic chemistry, phytochemistry, polymer chemistry, radiochemistry, solid-state chemistry, sonochemistry, supramolecular chemistry, surface chemistry, synthetic chemistry, thermochemistry, and many others.

Chemical industry

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The chemical industry represents an important economic activity. The global top 50 chemical producers in 2004 had sales of 587 billion US dollars with a profit margin of 8.1% and research and development spending of 2.1% of total chemical sales.

Professional societies

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• American Chemical Society
• American Society for Neurochemistry
• Chemical Institute of Canada
• Chemical Society of Peru
• International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
• Royal Australian Chemical Institute
• Royal Netherlands Chemical Society
• Royal Society of Chemistry
• Society of Chemical Industry
• World Association of Theoretical and Computational Chemists
• List of chemistry societies

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See also

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• Glossary of chemistry terms
• Common chemicals
• International Year of Chemistry
• List of chemists
• List of compounds
• List of important publications in chemistry
• List of software for molecular mechanics modeling
• List of unsolved problems in chemistry
• Periodic Systems of Small Molecules
• Philosophy of chemistry

References

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Bibliography

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  My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
• 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
  
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• 20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.
  
  My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534

Further reading

Singapore has elevated a tax on foreign property buyers as part of new non permanent measures to chill its residential housing market which has seen continued strong demand regardless of previous efforts to curb prices.

This doc has been ready by All Property Solutions Singapore Pte Ltd. The information including all materials, estimates, calculations, opinions or suggestions contained in this doc have been provided in good faith and have been primarily based on info received from sources All Property Solutions Singapore Pte Ltd has accepted in good faith. No guarantee is made as to the accuracy or reliability of any info contained on this document and neither All Property Options Singapore Pte Ltd nor any individuals involved within the preparation of this doc settle for any form of legal responsibility for its content material.

Rare Industrial Development within Pandan Food Zone area up for sale A home mortgage or mortgage loan is a mortgage to purchase property and secured on the property that you purchase. A house loan is usually repayable in monthly instalments. Earlier than taking over a house mortgage, just remember to can afford the repayments. Do ask for a repayment schedule to help you estimate costs. Starting from March 2012, your bank also needs to give you a residential property mortgage fact sheet to help you perceive the terms of the mortgage. The Topiary EC @ Fernvale any unit in an authorised condominium improvement under the Planning Act; and Approval must be obtained from the Minister for Regulation to buy a restricted residential property. GETTING YOUR PROPERTY SOLD / LEASED? SLA website

Previous rounds of Government measures have had a moderating effect on residential property costs. There is additionally vital provide of housing that may come onto the market over the next two years. Nonetheless, prices in both the HDB resale market and personal residential property have continued to rise in Q2 and Q3 of 2012. Lease Property District 06 Hire Property District 07 Rent Property District 08 Hire Property District 09 Hire Property District 22 Lease Property District 26 Lease Property District 27 JLL appointed unique agent for the sale of 2, 4 and 6 Dunlop Avenue by Expression of Curiosity. Freehold improvement within the prestigious Ardmore Park / Claymore district with potential for en bloc sale Forestville EC @ Woodlands An EC with Iconic Skypark! Home Viewing

Mortgages might be obtained for buy of all freehold properties and some leasehold properties relying upon the utilization and the unexpired lease term. New leasehold residential properties which typically come with ninety nine years leasehold shouldn't be a problem. Banks could also be unwilling to provide loans for residential properties with lower than 60 years unexpired lease. Condominiums are a preferred choice with both expatriates and locals. The huge vary of amenities, from swimming pool and fitness center to round the clock security and scenic surroundings, provide for a snug lifestyle, especially for families. For a listing of condominiums, click on right here Sign an inventory listing of all of the items offered by the owner, together with their condition. Housing mortgage repayments

In case you're searching for a new launching property dwelling or selling one, now you can negotiate together with your property agent on the suitable fee. The Institute of Estate Brokers (IEA) will take away its guidelines on property brokers' commissions subsequent month, to fall according to the Competition Act. In line with latest official figures, there has additionally been little upward movement within the non-public property rental market. Rent House District 05 Rent Home District 06 Hire House District 07 Hire Home District 08 Rent House District 09 Hire House District 10 Lease Home District eleven Hire Home District 12 Hire Home District thirteen Hire House District 14 Hire Home District 15 Hire House District 16 Rent Home District 18 Lease Home District 20 Lease Home District 21 Rent Home District 22 Lease House District 23 Hire House District 24

Equally, jojoba oil is helpful for eradicating eye makeup like kohl, liner, mascara and eyeshadow. The most effective part is this oil does not cause any eye irritation. Since the eye area may be very sensitive, you just have to use the oil with nice care and be sure to do not rub it harshly. Simply, dip a cotton pad into the oil and apply instantly over the eyelashes. Within no time, you can see that it has removed all the make-up. Common software will make the lashes extra stunning. Template:Wikiversity

Popular reading

• Atkins, P.W. Galileo's Finger (Oxford University Press) ISBN 0-19-860941-8
• Atkins, P.W. Atkins' Molecules (Cambridge University Press) ISBN 0-521-82397-8
• Kean, Sam. The Disappearing Spoon - and other true tales from the Periodic Table (Black Swan) London, 2010 ISBN 978-0-552-77750-6
• Levi, Primo The Periodic Table (Penguin Books) [1975] translated from the Italian by Raymond Rosenthal (1984) ISBN 978-0-14-139944-7
• Stwertka, A. A Guide to the Elements (Oxford University Press) ISBN 0-19-515027-9

Introductory undergraduate text books

• Atkins, P.W., Overton, T., Rourke, J., Weller, M. and Armstrong, F. Shriver and Atkins inorganic chemistry (4th edition) 2006 (Oxford University Press) ISBN 0-19-926463-5
• Chang, Raymond. Chemistry 6th ed. Boston: James M. Smith, 1998. ISBN 0-07-115221-0.
• Template:Clayden
• Voet and Voet Biochemistry (Wiley) ISBN 0-471-58651-X

Advanced undergraduate-level or graduate text books

• Atkins, P.W. Physical Chemistry (Oxford University Press) ISBN 0-19-879285-9
• Atkins, P.W. et al. Molecular Quantum Mechanics (Oxford University Press)
• McWeeny, R. Coulson's Valence (Oxford Science Publications) ISBN 0-19-855144-4
• Pauling, L. The Nature of the chemical bond (Cornell University Press) ISBN 0-8014-0333-2
• Pauling, L., and Wilson, E. B. Introduction to Quantum Mechanics with Applications to Chemistry (Dover Publications) ISBN 0-486-64871-0
• Smart and Moore Solid State Chemistry: An Introduction (Chapman and Hall) ISBN 0-412-40040-5
• Stephenson, G. Mathematical Methods for Science Students (Longman) ISBN 0-582-44416-0

Earlier than you decide whether or not chrome steel cookware is price shopping for, lets first discuss what stainless-steel cookware is. Stainless-steel is made of an alloy, or a mix of metals. Mostly, basic iron with chromium, nickel or some other minor metals. The chromium offers rust safety and provides your cookware sturdiness. The nickel gives rust safety as nicely, and adds a cultured look. Most properly made chrome steel cookware has copper or aluminum added to the underside of the pan or pot. This is achieved to increases the ability of the pot or pan to conduct heat.
The perfect stainless steel cookware is the primary category, however still it is divided into several subcategories based on the standard and the value range. It can be confusing to choose the very best stainless steel cookware out of the classes that may meet your necessities. That is the place we took a step forward to clarify you all the knowledge that can be useful so that you can know how to choose one of the best stainless-steel cookware. The most effective stainless steel cookware set is manufactured from low-cost to expensive and quality constructed pots and pans.
You will discover magnetic chrome steel in the layer on the skin of some high quality pieces of stainless steel. This is to make it compatible with induction stovetops, which contain using a rapidly charging electromagnetic subject to heat cookware. Excessive-high quality stainless steel, like All-Clad , uses three layers of metal—the austenite layer of steel on the within, ferrite metal on the outside, and a layer of aluminum sandwiched between the 2 for optimum heat conductivity (steel alone does not conduct warmth evenly). Lesser-quality stainless steel is normally just one layer of austenitic stainless-steel.
Aesthetically speaking, chrome steel is a sensible choice if you want to show or hold pots or pans. The clear, crisp look of all chrome steel kitchenware can transform a mishmash of cookware into a classy décor statement. Chrome steel kettles, such as the Cuisinart Tea Kettle will mix particular person kitchenware right into a cohesive and nice entity. Think about purchasing stainless steel utensils as effectively. Already acquired a gorgeous stainless steel cookware assortment? The Cuisinart Chef’s Collection stainless pot rack is likely to be the of entirety for a kitchen, liberating up area and making these pots and pans readily accessible. Get the stainless steel cookware of your culinary desires at Macy’s!
Arduous-anodized aluminum cookware is one of the hottest varieties of materials, even though many people do not fairly understand the construction. Onerous-anodized aluminum is apparent aluminum that has been processed in a series of chemical baths charged with an electric current. The result's a fabric that has the identical superior warmth conductivity as aluminum however is non-reactive with acidic meals, similar to tomatoes, and twice as arduous as chrome steel. Two drawbacks to arduous-anodized cookware are that it is not dishwasher-protected and, as a result of it's not magnetic, it will not work with induction vary tops.
The enamel over metal approach creates a bit that has the heat distribution of carbon steel and a non-reactive, low-stick surface. Such pots are a lot lighter than most different pots of similar dimension, are cheaper to make than stainless steel pots, and shouldn't have the rust and reactivity problems with forged iron or carbon steel. quotation wanted Enamel over steel is ideal for giant stockpots and for different large pans used mostly for water-primarily based cooking. Because of its gentle weight and straightforward cleanup, enamel over metal is also standard for cookware used while camping. Clad aluminium or copper edit
Distinctive specialty cookware items served a la carte to go with any cookware set are constructed of a sturdy Stainless Steel with a brushed exterior end. Designed with an impression bonded, aluminum disk encapsulated base which distributes heat quickly and evenly to allow precise temperature control. Handles are riveted for durability and performance. The New Specialty Cookware is compatible for all vary types including induction. Along with the multi use operate, another distinctive characteristic is bottom to top interior volume markings in both quarts and metric measurement; and every bit comes with a tempered glass lid, oven secure to 350°F.
Whether or not you are a cooking fanatics, knowledgeable chef or just cooking for your loved ones you realize the importance of getting a totally stocked kitchen. Not solely do you need the right elements, however you additionally need the appropriate tools to get the job carried out. In any type of basic cooking coaching lesson, you'll study that chrome steel is your new best friend relating to kitchen cookware. What additionally, you will be taught is that high quality cooking equipment does not often come at a discounted worth. For that reason, it is important to take excellent care of your cookware! Listed here are some fundamentals for chrome steel care.
To fight the uneven heating drawback, most stainless-steel pans are laminations of aluminum or copper on the underside to spread the heat around, and stainless steel inside the pan to supply a cooking surface that is impervious to no matter you may put inside. In my experience, this chrome steel floor is still too sticky to fry on, and when you ever burn it you get a permanent bother spot. But, generally a chrome steel cooking floor is useful when you possibly can't use aluminum (see under) so I preserve some around. Select something with a fairly thick aluminum layer on the bottom.
Properly, except you’re a metals knowledgeable and go examine the factory the place the steel is made to see whether or not their manufacturing course of creates a pure austenite without corrosive supplies shaped, you’re not going to know for sure whether or not the craftsmanship of your stainless is of the best quality. I feel your best bet is to simply purchase excessive-quality chrome steel from the start, from a model with a status for good high quality. However, I feel I have discovered a method you can decide if the stainless cookware you already have is doubtlessly reactive. Hostgator Discounts http://www.orchardwhite.com/?option=com_k2&view=itemlist&task=user&id=150428; When it comes to internet hosting leaders, HostGator is plainly a top tier option. We freely confess right here at Internet Host Mentor, that HostGator places as a leading favorite within our team. Now HostGator didn't pay us to state that.
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