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| In [[theoretical physics]], '''negative mass''' is a hypothetical concept of matter whose [[mass]] is of opposite sign to the mass of normal matter, e.g. −2 kg. Such matter would violate one or more [[energy condition]]s and show some strange properties, stemming from the ambiguity as to whether attraction should refer to force or the oppositely oriented acceleration for negative mass. It is used in certain speculative theories, such as on the construction of [[wormhole]]s. The closest known real representative of such exotic matter is a region of pseudo-[[Pressure#Negative pressures|negative pressure]] density produced by the [[Casimir effect]]. Although [[general relativity]] well describes the [[Newton's laws of motion|laws of motion]] for both positive and [[negative energy]] particles, hence negative mass, it does not include the [[Fundamental interaction|fundamental forces]] other than [[gravitation]]. Whereas the [[Standard Model]] which describes [[elementary particle]]s does not encompass gravitation, which is yet intimately involved in the origin of mass and [[inertia]]. Thus a correct particle model should explicitly include gravity.
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| ==In general relativity==
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| Negative mass is generalized to refer to any region of space in which for some observers the mass density is measured to be negative. This could occur due a region of space in which the stress component of the Einstein [[stress–energy tensor]] is larger in magnitude than the mass density. All of these are violations of one or another variant of the positive [[energy condition]] of Einstein's general theory of relativity; however, the positive energy condition is not a required condition for the mathematical consistency of the theory. Various versions of the positive energy condition, weak energy condition, dominant energy condition, ''etc.'', are discussed in mathematical detail by [[Matt Visser]].<ref>{{Cite book|first=M.|last= Visser |year=1995|title=Lorentzian Wormholes: from Einstein to Hawking|publisher= AIP Press|location= Woodbury NY|isbn= 1-56396-394-9}}</ref>
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| ===Inertial versus gravitational=== | | '''MathML''' |
| | :<math forcemathmode="mathml">E=mc^2</math> |
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| The earliest references to negative weight are due to the observation that metals gain weight when oxidizing in the study of [[phlogiston theory]] in the early 1700s.
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| Ever since [[Isaac Newton|Newton]] first formulated his theory of [[gravity]], there have been at least three conceptually distinct quantities called [[mass]]: [[inertial mass]], "active" [[gravitational mass]] (that is, the source of the gravitational field), and "passive" gravitational mass (that is, the mass that is evident from the force produced in a gravitational field). The Einstein [[equivalence principle]] postulates that inertial mass must equal passive gravitational mass. The law of [[Momentum|conservation of momentum]] requires that active and passive gravitational mass be identical. All experimental evidence to date has found these are, indeed, always the same. In considering negative mass, it is important to consider which of these concepts of mass are negative. In most analyses of negative mass, it is assumed that the equivalence principle and conservation of momentum continue to apply, and therefore all three forms of mass are still the same.
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| In his first prize essay for the 1951 [[Gravity Research Foundation]] competition, [[Joaquin Mazdak Luttinger]] considered the possibility of negative mass and how it would behave under gravitational and other forces.<ref name="Luttinger 1951">{{cite journal |last=Luttinger |first=J. M. |year=1951 |title=On "Negative" mass in the theory of gravitation |url=http://www.gravityresearchfoundation.org/pdf/awarded/1951/luttinger.pdf |journal=Awards for Essays on Gravitation |publisher=Gravity Research Foundation}}</ref>
| | <span style="color: red">Follow this [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-rendering link] to change your Math rendering settings.</span> You can also add a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-rendering-skin Custom CSS] to force the MathML/SVG rendering or select different font families. See [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Math#CSS_for_the_MathML_with_SVG_fallback_mode these examples]. |
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| In 1957, following Luttinger's idea, [[Hermann Bondi]] suggested in a paper in ''[[Reviews of Modern Physics]]'' that mass might be negative as well as positive.<ref name="Bondi 1957">{{Cite journal|first=H. |last=Bondi |date=July 1957|url=http://prola.aps.org/abstract/RMP/v29/i3/p423_1 |title=Negative Mass in General Relativity|journal=Rev. Mod. Phys.|volume= 29|issue= 3 |pages= 423|doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.29.423 |bibcode=1957RvMP...29..423B}}</ref> He pointed out that this does not entail a logical contradiction, as long as all three forms of mass are negative, but that the assumption of negative mass involves some counter-intuitive form of motion. For example, an object with negative inertial mass would be expected to accelerate in the opposite direction to that in which it was pushed.
| | ==Demos== |
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| There have been several other analyses of negative mass, for example R.H. Price,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Price|first1=R. M.|title=Negative mass can be positively amusing|journal=Am. J. Phys.|date=1993|volume=61|page=216|doi=10.1119/1.17293 |url=http://people.westminstercollege.edu/faculty/ccline/courses/resources/wp/pdf/AJP000216.pdf}}</ref> however none addressed the question of what kind of energy and momentum would be necessary to describe non-singular negative mass. Indeed, the Schwarzschild solution for negative mass parameter has a naked singularity at a fixed spatial position. The question that immediately comes up is, would it not be possible to smooth out the singularity with some kind of negative mass density. The answer is yes, but not with energy and momentum that satisfies the [[Energy condition#Dominant energy condition|dominant energy condition]]. This is because if the energy and momentum satisfies the dominant energy condition within a spacetime that is asymptotically flat, which would be the case of smoothing out the singular negative mass Schwarzschild solution, then it must satisfy the positive energy theorem, i.e. its [[ADM formalism|ADM mass]] must be positive, which is of course not the case.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Shoen|first1=R.|last2=Yao|first2=S.-T.|title=On the proof of the positive mass conjecture in general relativity|journal=Commun. Math. Phys.|date=1979|volume=65|page=45 |url=http://www.doctoryau.com/papers/PositiveMassConjecture.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Witten|first1=Edward|title=A new proof of the positive energy theorem|journal=Comm. Math. Phys.|date=1981|volume=80|page=381 |url=http://projecteuclid.org/euclid.cmp/1103919981}}</ref> However, it was noticed by Belletête and Paranjape that since the positive energy theorem does not apply to asymptotic de Sitter spacetime, it would actually be possible to smooth out, with energy-momentum that does satisfy the dominant energy condition, the singularity of the corresponding exact solution of negative mass Schwarzschild-de Sitter, which is the singular, exact solution of Einstein's equations with cosmological constant.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Belletête|first1=Jonathan|last2=Paranjape|first2=Manu|title=On Negative Mass|journal=Int.J.Mod.Phys.|date=2013|volume=D22|page=1341017|doi=10.1142/S0218271813410174 |arxiv=1304.1566}}</ref> In a subsequent article, Mbarek and Paranjape showed that it is in fact possible to obtain the required deformation through the introduction of the energy-momentum of a perfect fluid.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mbarek|first1=Saoussen|last2=Paranjape|first2=Manu|title=Negative Mass Bubbles in De Sitter Spacetime|journal=Phys. Rev. D (R)|date=2014|volume=D90|page=101502|doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.90.101502 |arxiv=1407.1457}}</ref>
| | Here are some [https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:ListFiles/Frederic.wang demos]: |
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| ===Runaway motion===
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| Although no particles are known to have negative mass, physicists (primarily [[Hermann Bondi]] in 1957,<ref name="Bondi 1957" /> [[William B. Bonnor]] in 1989,<ref name="Bonnor 1989">{{Cite doi|10.1007/BF00763458}}</ref> then [[Robert L. Forward]]<ref name="Forward 1990">{{Cite doi|10.2514/3.23219}}</ref>) have been able to describe some of the anticipated properties such particles may have. Assuming that all three concepts of mass are equivalent the gravitational interactions between masses of arbitrary sign can be explored, based on the [[Einstein field equations]]:
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| * Positive mass attracts both other positive masses and negative masses. | | * accessibility: |
| * Negative mass repels both other negative masses and positive masses. | | ** Safari + VoiceOver: [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:VoiceOver-Mac-Safari.ogv video only], [[File:Voiceover-mathml-example-1.wav|thumb|Voiceover-mathml-example-1]], [[File:Voiceover-mathml-example-2.wav|thumb|Voiceover-mathml-example-2]], [[File:Voiceover-mathml-example-3.wav|thumb|Voiceover-mathml-example-3]], [[File:Voiceover-mathml-example-4.wav|thumb|Voiceover-mathml-example-4]], [[File:Voiceover-mathml-example-5.wav|thumb|Voiceover-mathml-example-5]], [[File:Voiceover-mathml-example-6.wav|thumb|Voiceover-mathml-example-6]], [[File:Voiceover-mathml-example-7.wav|thumb|Voiceover-mathml-example-7]] |
| | ** [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:MathPlayer-Audio-Windows7-InternetExplorer.ogg Internet Explorer + MathPlayer (audio)] |
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| | ** Orca: There is ongoing work, but no support at all at the moment [[File:Orca-mathml-example-1.wav|thumb|Orca-mathml-example-1]], [[File:Orca-mathml-example-2.wav|thumb|Orca-mathml-example-2]], [[File:Orca-mathml-example-3.wav|thumb|Orca-mathml-example-3]], [[File:Orca-mathml-example-4.wav|thumb|Orca-mathml-example-4]], [[File:Orca-mathml-example-5.wav|thumb|Orca-mathml-example-5]], [[File:Orca-mathml-example-6.wav|thumb|Orca-mathml-example-6]], [[File:Orca-mathml-example-7.wav|thumb|Orca-mathml-example-7]]. |
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| For two positive masses, nothing changes and there is a gravitational pull on each other causing an attraction. Two negative masses would repel because of their negative inertial masses. For different signs however, there is a push that repels the positive mass from the negative mass, and a pull that attracts the negative mass towards the positive one at the same time.
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| Hence Bondi pointed out that two objects of equal and opposite mass would produce a constant acceleration of the system towards the positive-mass object,<ref name="Bondi 1957" /> an effect called "runaway motion" by Bonnor who disregarded its physical existence, stating:
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| |I regard the runaway (or self-accelerating) motion […] so preposterous that I prefer to rule it out by supposing that inertial mass is all positive or all negative.
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| |author= William B. Bonnor
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| |source=in ''Negative mass in general relativity''.<ref name="Bonnor 1989" />}}
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| Such a couple of objects would accelerate without limit (except relativistic one); however, the total mass, momentum and energy of the system would remain 0.
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| This behavior is completely inconsistent with a common-sense approach and the expected behaviour of 'normal' matter; but is completely mathematically consistent and introduces no violation of conservation of momentum or [[conservation of energy|energy]]. If the masses are equal in magnitude but opposite in sign, then the momentum of the system remains zero if they both travel together and accelerate together, no matter what their speed:
| | ==Bug reporting== |
| | | If you find any bugs, please report them at [https://bugzilla.wikimedia.org/enter_bug.cgi?product=MediaWiki%20extensions&component=Math&version=master&short_desc=Math-preview%20rendering%20problem Bugzilla], or write an email to math_bugs (at) ckurs (dot) de . |
| :<math>P_{sys} = mv + (-m)v = [m+(-m)]v = 0\times v = 0.</math>
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| And equivalently for the [[kinetic energy]] <math>K_e</math>:
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| :<math>K_{e\ sys} = {1 \over 2} mv^2 + {1 \over 2}(-m)v^2 = {1 \over 2}[m+(-m)]v^2 = {1 \over 2}(0)v^2 = 0</math>
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| Forward extended Bondi's analysis to additional cases, and showed that even if the two masses m(-) and m(+) are not the same, the conservation laws remain unbroken. This is true even when relativistic effects are considered, so long as inertial mass, not rest mass, is equal to gravitational mass.
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| This behaviour can produce bizarre results: for instance, a gas containing a mixture of positive and negative matter particles will have the positive matter portion increase in [[temperature]] without bound. However, the negative matter portion gains negative temperature at the same rate, again balancing out. [[Geoffrey A. Landis]] pointed out other implications of Forward's analysis,<ref>{{Cite journal|first=G.|last= Landis|title=Comments on Negative Mass Propulsion|journal=J. Propulsion and Power|volume= 7|issue= 2|pages= 304 |year=1991|doi=10.2514/3.23327}}</ref> including noting that although negative mass particles would repel each other gravitationally, the [[electrostatic force]] would be attractive for like-[[charge (physics)|charges]] and repulsive for opposite charges.
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| Forward used the properties of negative-mass matter to create the concept of [[Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Program#Diametrical|diametric drive]], a design for [[spacecraft propulsion]] using negative mass that requires no energy input and no [[Working mass|reaction mass]] to achieve arbitrarily high acceleration.
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| Forward also coined a term, "nullification" to describe what happens when ordinary matter and negative matter meet: they are expected to be able to "cancel-out" or "nullify" each other's existence. An interaction between equal quantities of positive mass matter (hence of positive energy <math>E = m c^2</math>) and negative mass matter (of negative energy <math>-E = -m c^2</math>) would release no energy, but because the only configuration of such particles that has zero momentum (both particles moving with the same velocity in the same direction) does not produce a collision, all such interactions would leave a surplus of momentum, which is classically forbidden. So once this runaway phenomenon has been revealed, the [[scientific community]] considered negative mass could not exist in the universe.
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| ===Arrow of time and space inversion===
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| In 1970, [[Jean-Marie Souriau]] demonstrated, through the complete [[Poincaré group]] of dynamic [[group theory]], that reversing the energy of a particle (hence its mass, if the particle has one) is equal to reversing its [[arrow of time]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Souriau |first=J. M. |date=1970 |title=Structure des Systèmes Dynamiques |url=http://www.jmsouriau.com/structure_des_systemes_dynamiques.htm |location=Paris |publisher=Dunod |page=199 |language=French |issn=0750-2435}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Souriau |first=J. M. |title=Structure of Dynamical Systems |chapter=A mechanistic description of elementary particles: Inversions of space and time |location=Boston |publisher=Birkhäuser |date=1997 |isbn=978-1-4612-6692-1 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4612-0281-3_14}}</ref>
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| The universe according to [[general relativity]] is a [[Riemannian manifold]] associated to a [[metric tensor]] solution of Einstein’s field equations. In such a framework, the runaway motion prevents the existence of negative matter.<ref name="Bondi 1957" /><ref name="Bonnor 1989" />
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| Some [[bimetric theory|bimetric theories]] of the universe propose that two [[multiverse|parallel universes]] instead of one may exist with an opposite arrow of time, linked together by the [[Big Bang]] and interacting only through [[gravitation]].<ref name="Sakharov 1980">A.D. Sakharov: "Cosmological model of the Universe with a time vector inversion". ZhETF 79: 689–693 (1980); translation in JETP Lett. 52: 349–351 (1980)
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| </ref><ref name="Petit 1995">{{Cite doi|10.1007/BF00627375}}</ref><ref name=""Barbour 2014">{{Cite doi|10.1103/PhysRevLett.113.181101}}</ref> The universe is then described as a manifold associated to two Riemannian metrics (one with positive mass matter and the other with negative mass matter). According to group theory, the matter of the [[Topological conjugacy|conjugated]] metric would appear to the matter of the other metric as having opposite mass and arrow of time (though its [[proper time]] would remain positive). The coupled metrics have their own [[geodesic]]s and are solutions of two coupled field equations:<ref name="Petit 2014a">{{Cite doi|10.1007/s10509-014-2106-5}}</ref><ref name="Petit 2014b">{{Cite doi|10.1142/S021773231450182X}}</ref>
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| :<math>R_{\mu \nu}^{(+)} - {1 \over 2}g_{\mu \nu}\,R^{(+)} g_{\mu \nu}^{(+)} = {8 \pi G \over c^4} [ T_{\mu \nu}^{(+)} + \varphi T_{\mu \nu}^{(-)} ]</math>
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| :<math>R_{\mu \nu}^{(-)} - {1 \over 2}g_{\mu \nu}\,R^{(-)} g_{\mu \nu}^{(-)} = - {8 \pi G \over c^4} [ \phi T_{\mu \nu}^{(+)} + T_{\mu \nu}^{(-)} ]</math>
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| The [[Post-Newtonian expansion|Newtonian approximation]] then provides the following interaction laws:
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| * Positive mass attracts positive mass.
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| * Negative mass attracts negative mass.
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| * Positive mass and negative mass repel each other.
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| Those laws are different to the laws described by Bondi and Bonnor, and solve the runaway paradox. The negative matter of the coupled metric, interacting with the matter of the other metric via gravity, could be an alternate candidate for the explanation of [[dark matter]], [[dark energy]], [[Inflation (cosmology)|cosmic inflation]] and [[accelerating universe]].<ref name="Petit 2014a" /><ref name="Petit 2014b" />
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| ===In Gauss's law for gravity===
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| In [[electromagnetism]] one can derive the energy density of a field from [[Gauss's law]], assuming the curl of the field is 0. Performing the same calculation using [[Gauss's law for gravity]] produces a negative energy density for a gravitational field.
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| ===Gravitational interaction of antimatter===
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| {{Main|Gravitational interaction of antimatter}}
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| The overwhelming consensus among physicists is that [[antimatter]] has positive mass and should be affected by gravity just like normal matter. Direct experiments on neutral [[antihydrogen]] have not detected any difference between the gravitational interaction of antimatter, compared to normal matter.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/ncomms2787}}</ref>
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| [[Bubble chamber]] experiments provide further evidence that antiparticles have the same inertial mass as their normal counterparts. In these experiments, the chamber is subjected to a constant magnetic field that causes charged particles to travel in [[helical]] paths, the radius and direction of which correspond to the ratio of electric charge to inertial mass. Particle–antiparticle pairs are seen to travel in helices with opposite directions but identical radii, implying that the ratios differ only in sign; but this does not indicate whether it is the charge or the inertial mass that is inverted. However, particle–antiparticle pairs are observed to electrically attract one another. This behavior implies that both have positive inertial mass and opposite charges; if the reverse were true, then the particle with positive inertial mass would be repelled from its antiparticle partner.
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| ==In quantum mechanics==
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| In 1928, [[Paul Dirac]]'s theory of [[elementary particle]]s, now part of the [[Standard Model]], already included negative solutions.<ref name="Dirac 1928">{{Cite doi|10.1098/rspa.1928.0023}}</ref> The [[Standard Model]] is a generalization of [[quantum electrodynamics]] (QED) and negative mass is already built into the theory.
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| [[Mike Morris (physicist)|Morris]], [[Kip Thorne|Thorne]] and Yurtsever<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v61/i13/p1446_1 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.61.1446|title=Wormholes, Time Machines, and the Weak Energy Condition|journal=Physical Review|volume=61|issue=13|date=September 1988|pages= 1446–1449|last1=Morris|first1=Michael|last2=Thorne|first2=Kip|last3=Yurtsever|first3=Ulvi|pmid=10038800|bibcode = 1988PhRvL..61.1446M }}</ref> pointed out that the quantum mechanics of the [[Casimir effect]] can be used to produce a locally mass-negative region of space–time. In this article, and subsequent work by others, they showed that negative matter could be used to stabilize a [[wormhole]]. Cramer ''et al.'' argue that such wormholes might have been created in the early universe, stabilized by negative-mass loops of [[cosmic string]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Natural Wormholes as Gravitational Lenses|journal=Phys. Rev. D|volume=51|year=1995|pages= 3117–3120|arxiv=astro-ph/9409051 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.51.3117 |last1=Cramer |first1=John |last2=Forward |first2=Robert |last3=Morris |first3=Michael |last4=Visser |first4=Matt |last5=Benford |first5=Gregory |last6=Landis |first6=Geoffrey |issue=6|bibcode = 1995PhRvD..51.3117C }}</ref> [[Stephen Hawking]] has proved that [[negative energy]] is a necessary condition for the creation of a [[closed timelike curve]] by manipulation of gravitational fields within a finite region of space;<ref name="futureofspacetime">{{Cite book| last = Hawking | first = Stephen | title = The Future of Spacetime | publisher = W. W. Norton |year= 2002 | pages = 96 | isbn = 0-393-02022-3}}</ref> this proves, for example, that a finite [[Tipler cylinder]] cannot be used as a [[Time travel|time machine]].
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| ===Schrödinger equation===
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| For energy eigenstates of the [[Schrödinger equation]], the wavefunction is wavelike wherever the particle's energy is greater than the local potential, and exponential-like (evanescent) wherever it is less. Naively, this would imply kinetic energy is negative in evanescent regions (to cancel the local potential). However, kinetic energy is an operator in [[quantum mechanics]], and its expectation value is always positive, summing with the expectation value of the potential energy to yield the energy eigenvalue.
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| For wavefunctions of particles with zero rest mass (such as [[photon]]s), this means that any evanescent portions of the wavefunction would be associated with a local negative mass–energy. However, the Schrödinger equation does not apply to massless particles; instead the [[Klein-Gordon equation]] is required.
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| ===Negative bare mass of the electron===
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| The mass contributed to the total mass of the [[electron]] by the cloud of [[Virtual particle|virtual photons]], by [[Mass–energy equivalence|Einstein's second law]], is positive, so the [[bare mass]] of the electron is necessarily less than its [[Electron rest mass|observed mass]]. Since the virtual photons have energies greater than twice the electron mass, so they can make the [[Pair production|electron-positron pairs]] needed for charge [[renormalization]], then the bare mass of the source electron must be negative.<ref name="Woodward 1993">{{Cite doi|10.1007/BF00665728}}</ref><ref name="Woodward 1994">{{Cite doi|10.1007/BF02056552}}</ref><ref name="Woodward book">{{Cite doi|10.1007/978-1-4614-5623-0}}</ref>
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| ==See also==
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| * [[Exotic matter]]
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| * [[Alcubierre drive]]
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| * [[Warp-field experiments]]
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| * [[Woodward effect]]
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| ==References==
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| {{Reflist}}
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| {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2010}}
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| {{DEFAULTSORT:Negative Mass}}
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| [[Category:Mass]]
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| [[Category:Gravitation]]
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| [[Category:Wormhole theory]]
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| [[Category:Warp drive theory]]
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| [[Category:Exotic matter]]
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| [[Category:Hypothetical objects]]
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