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'''Plasma diagnostics''' are a pool of methods, instruments, and experimental techniques used to measure properties of a [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]], such as plasma components' [[density]], distribution function over energy ([[temperature]]), their spatial profiles and dynamics, which enable to derive [[plasma parameters]]. | |||
==[[Langmuir probe]]== | |||
Measurements with electric probes, called [[Langmuir probe]]s, are the oldest and most often used procedures for low-temperature plasmas. The method was developed by [[Irving Langmuir]] and his co-workers in the 1920s, and has since been further developed in order to extend its applicability to more general conditions than those presumed by [[Langmuir]]. [[Langmuir probe]] measurements are based on the estimation of [[current (electricity)|current]] versus [[voltage]] characteristics of a [[electrical network|circuit]] consisting of two metallic electrodes that are both immersed in the plasma under study. Two cases are of interest: | |||
(a) The surface areas of the two electrodes differ by several orders of magnitude. This is known as the ''single-probe'' method. | |||
(b) The surface areas are very small in comparison with the dimensions of the vessel containing the plasma and approximately equal to each other. This is the ''double-probe'' method. | |||
Conventional [[Langmuir probe]] theory assumes collisionless movement of charge carriers in the space charge sheath around the probe. Further it is assumed that the sheath boundary is well-defined and that beyond this boundary the plasma is completely undisturbed by the presence of the probe. This means that the [[electric field]] caused by the difference between the potential of the probe and the plasma potential at the place where the probe is located is limited to the volume inside the probe sheath boundary. | |||
The general theoretical description of a [[Langmuir probe]] measurement requires the simultaneous solution of the [[Poisson equation]], the collision-free [[Boltzmann equation]] or [[Vlasov equation]], and the [[continuity equation]] with regard to the boundary condition at the probe surface and requiring that, at large distances from the probe, the solution approaches that expected in an undisturbed plasma. | |||
== for the | ==Self Excited Electron Plasma Resonance Spectroscopy (SEERS)== | ||
Nonlinear effects like the [[I-V characteristic]] of the boundary sheath are utilized for [[Langmuir probe]] measurements but they are usually neglected for modelling of RF discharges due to their very inconvenient mathematical treatment. The Self Excited Electron Plasma Resonance Spectroscopy (SEERS) utilizes exactly these nonlinear effects and known resonance effects in RF discharges. The nonlinear elements, in particular the sheaths, provide harmonics in the discharge current and excite the plasma and the sheath at their series resonance characterized by the so-called geometric resonance frequency. | |||
SEERS provides the spatially and reciprocally averaged electron plasma density and the effective electron collision rate. The electron collision rate reflects stochastic (pressure) heating and ohmic heating of the electrons. | |||
The model for the plasma bulk is based on 2d-fluid model (zero and first order moments of [[Boltzmann equation]]) and the full set of the [[Maxwellian]] equations leading to the [[Helmholtz equation]] for the magnetic field. The sheath model is based additionally on the [[Poisson equation]]. | |||
==Magnetic (B-dot) Probe== | |||
If the magnetic field in the plasma is not stationary, either because the plasma as a whole is transient or because the fields are periodic (radio-frequency heating), the rate of change of the magnetic field with time (<math>\dot B</math>, read "B-dot") can be measured locally with a loop or coil of wire. Such coils exploit [[Faraday's Law]], whereby a changing magnetic field induces an electric field. The induced voltage can be measured and recorded with common instruments. | |||
Also, by [[Ampere's Law]], the magnetic field is proportional to the currents that produce it, so the measured magnetic field gives information about the currents flowing in the plasma. Both currents and magnetic fields are important in understanding fundamental plasma physics. | |||
== | ==[[Faraday cup in plasma diagnostics]]== | ||
The conventional [[Faraday cup]] is applied for measurements of ion (or electron) flows from plasma boundaries and for [[mass spectrometry]]. | |||
==Passive [[spectroscopy]]== | |||
Passive [[spectroscopic]] methods simply observe the radiation emitted by the plasma. | |||
===[[Doppler shift]]=== | |||
If the plasma (or one ionic component of the plasma) is flowing in the direction of the line of sight to the observer, emission lines will be seen at a different frequency due to the [[Doppler effect]]. | |||
===[[Doppler broadening]]=== | |||
The thermal motion of ions will result in a shift of emission lines up or down, depending on whether the ion is moving toward or away from the observer. The magnitude of the shift is proportional to the velocity along the line of sight. The net effect is a characteristic broadening of spectral lines, known as [[Doppler broadening]], from which the ion temperature can be determined. | |||
===[[Stark effect]]=== | |||
The splitting of some emission lines due to the [[Stark effect]] can be used to determine the local electric field. | |||
===[[Stark broadening]]=== | |||
Even if the macroscopic electric field is zero, any single ion will experience an electric field due to the neighboring charged particles in the plasma. This results in a broadening of some lines that can be used to determine the density of the plasma. | |||
===Motional [[Stark effect]]=== | |||
If an atom is moving in a magnetic field, the [[Lorentz force]] will act in opposite directions on the nucleus and the electrons, just as an electric field does. In the frame of reference of the atom, there ''is'' an electric field, even if there is none in the laboratory frame. Consequently, certain lines will be split by the [[Stark effect]]. With an appropriate choice of beam species and velocity and of geometry, this effect can be used to determine the magnetic field in the plasma. | |||
===[[Helium line ratio]]=== | |||
The brightness of an [[Atomic spectral line]] emitted by atoms in a gas (or plasma) can be proportional to the gas's temperature, pressure or a weighted sum of both. | |||
Due to the completeness and accuracy of [[collisional radiative model]]s for [[helium]] the temperature and density of plasmas which have helium present can be measured by taking ratios of the emission intensities of various [[Atomic spectral line]]s | |||
==Active spectroscopy== | |||
Active spectroscopic methods stimulate the plasma atoms in some way and observe the result (emission of radiation, absorption of the stimulating light or others). | |||
===Absorption spectroscopy=== | |||
By shining through the plasma a laser with a wavelength, tuned to a certain transition of one of the species present in the plasma, the absorption profile of that transition could be obtained. This profile provides information not only for the plasma parameters, that could be obtained from the emission profile, but also for the line-integrated number density of the absorbing species. | |||
===Laser-induced fluorescence=== | |||
If the plasma is not fully ionized but contains ions that fluoresce, [[laser-induced fluorescence]] can provide very detailed information on temperature, density, and flows. | |||
===Two-photon laser-induced fluorescence=== | |||
The two-photon laser-induced fluorescence (TALIF) is a modification of the laser-induced fluorescence technique. In this approach the upper level is excited by absorbing two photons and registering the resulting emission from the excited state. The advantage of this approach is that the registered light from the fluorescence is with a different wavelength from the exciting laser beam, which leads to improved signal to noise ratio. | |||
==Optical effects from free electrons== | |||
The optical diagnostics above measure line radiation from atoms. Alternatively, the effects of free charges on electromagnetic radiation can be used as a diagnostic. | |||
===[[Thomson scattering]]=== | |||
Scattering of laser light from the electrons in a plasma is known as [[Thomson scattering]]. The electron temperature can be determined very reliably from the [[Doppler broadening]] of the laser line. The electron density can be determined from the intensity of the scattered light, but a careful absolute calibration is required. Although Thomson scattering is dominated by scattering from electrons, since the electrons interact with the ions, in some circumstances information on the ion temperature can also be extracted. | |||
===[[Interferometry]]=== | |||
If a plasma is placed in one arm of an [[Interferometry|interferometer]], the phase shift will be proportional to the plasma density integrated along the path. | |||
===[[Faraday rotation]]=== | |||
The [[Faraday effect]] will rotate the plane of [[Polarization (waves)|polarization]] of a beam passing through a plasma with a magnetic field in the direction of the beam. This effect can be used as a diagnostic of the magnetic field, although the information is mixed with the density profile and is usually an integral value only. | |||
==Neutron diagnostics== | |||
Fusion plasmas produces 2.5 MeV and 14 MeV neutrons. By measuring the neutron flux, plasma properties such as ion temperature and fusion power can be determined. | |||
== See also == | |||
* [[Faraday Cup in Plasma Diagnostics|Faraday cup]] | |||
== References == | |||
* {{cite journal |author=H. Hutchinson |booktitle=Principles of Plasma Diagnostics, |publisher= Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 2005|volume= |issue= |pages=460 |doi=}} | |||
* {{cite journal |author=A. A. Ovsyannikov, M. Zhukov |booktitle=Plasma Diagnostics, |publisher= Cambridge Int. Publishing, Cambridge. 2000|volume= |issue= |pages=575 |doi=}} | |||
* {{cite journal |author=E. V. Shun'ko. |booktitle=Langmuir Probe in Theory and Practice, |publisher= Universal Publishers, Boca Raton, Fl. 2008|volume= |issue= |pages=249 |doi=}} | |||
{{DEFAULTSORT:Plasma Diagnostics}} | |||
[[Category:Plasma diagnostics| ]] | |||
[[Category:Plasma physics]] | |||
[[Category:Measuring instruments]] | |||
Revision as of 06:59, 28 February 2013
Plasma diagnostics are a pool of methods, instruments, and experimental techniques used to measure properties of a plasma, such as plasma components' density, distribution function over energy (temperature), their spatial profiles and dynamics, which enable to derive plasma parameters.
Langmuir probe
Measurements with electric probes, called Langmuir probes, are the oldest and most often used procedures for low-temperature plasmas. The method was developed by Irving Langmuir and his co-workers in the 1920s, and has since been further developed in order to extend its applicability to more general conditions than those presumed by Langmuir. Langmuir probe measurements are based on the estimation of current versus voltage characteristics of a circuit consisting of two metallic electrodes that are both immersed in the plasma under study. Two cases are of interest: (a) The surface areas of the two electrodes differ by several orders of magnitude. This is known as the single-probe method. (b) The surface areas are very small in comparison with the dimensions of the vessel containing the plasma and approximately equal to each other. This is the double-probe method.
Conventional Langmuir probe theory assumes collisionless movement of charge carriers in the space charge sheath around the probe. Further it is assumed that the sheath boundary is well-defined and that beyond this boundary the plasma is completely undisturbed by the presence of the probe. This means that the electric field caused by the difference between the potential of the probe and the plasma potential at the place where the probe is located is limited to the volume inside the probe sheath boundary.
The general theoretical description of a Langmuir probe measurement requires the simultaneous solution of the Poisson equation, the collision-free Boltzmann equation or Vlasov equation, and the continuity equation with regard to the boundary condition at the probe surface and requiring that, at large distances from the probe, the solution approaches that expected in an undisturbed plasma.
Self Excited Electron Plasma Resonance Spectroscopy (SEERS)
Nonlinear effects like the I-V characteristic of the boundary sheath are utilized for Langmuir probe measurements but they are usually neglected for modelling of RF discharges due to their very inconvenient mathematical treatment. The Self Excited Electron Plasma Resonance Spectroscopy (SEERS) utilizes exactly these nonlinear effects and known resonance effects in RF discharges. The nonlinear elements, in particular the sheaths, provide harmonics in the discharge current and excite the plasma and the sheath at their series resonance characterized by the so-called geometric resonance frequency.
SEERS provides the spatially and reciprocally averaged electron plasma density and the effective electron collision rate. The electron collision rate reflects stochastic (pressure) heating and ohmic heating of the electrons.
The model for the plasma bulk is based on 2d-fluid model (zero and first order moments of Boltzmann equation) and the full set of the Maxwellian equations leading to the Helmholtz equation for the magnetic field. The sheath model is based additionally on the Poisson equation.
Magnetic (B-dot) Probe
If the magnetic field in the plasma is not stationary, either because the plasma as a whole is transient or because the fields are periodic (radio-frequency heating), the rate of change of the magnetic field with time (, read "B-dot") can be measured locally with a loop or coil of wire. Such coils exploit Faraday's Law, whereby a changing magnetic field induces an electric field. The induced voltage can be measured and recorded with common instruments. Also, by Ampere's Law, the magnetic field is proportional to the currents that produce it, so the measured magnetic field gives information about the currents flowing in the plasma. Both currents and magnetic fields are important in understanding fundamental plasma physics.
Faraday cup in plasma diagnostics
The conventional Faraday cup is applied for measurements of ion (or electron) flows from plasma boundaries and for mass spectrometry.
Passive spectroscopy
Passive spectroscopic methods simply observe the radiation emitted by the plasma.
Doppler shift
If the plasma (or one ionic component of the plasma) is flowing in the direction of the line of sight to the observer, emission lines will be seen at a different frequency due to the Doppler effect.
Doppler broadening
The thermal motion of ions will result in a shift of emission lines up or down, depending on whether the ion is moving toward or away from the observer. The magnitude of the shift is proportional to the velocity along the line of sight. The net effect is a characteristic broadening of spectral lines, known as Doppler broadening, from which the ion temperature can be determined.
Stark effect
The splitting of some emission lines due to the Stark effect can be used to determine the local electric field.
Stark broadening
Even if the macroscopic electric field is zero, any single ion will experience an electric field due to the neighboring charged particles in the plasma. This results in a broadening of some lines that can be used to determine the density of the plasma.
Motional Stark effect
If an atom is moving in a magnetic field, the Lorentz force will act in opposite directions on the nucleus and the electrons, just as an electric field does. In the frame of reference of the atom, there is an electric field, even if there is none in the laboratory frame. Consequently, certain lines will be split by the Stark effect. With an appropriate choice of beam species and velocity and of geometry, this effect can be used to determine the magnetic field in the plasma.
Helium line ratio
The brightness of an Atomic spectral line emitted by atoms in a gas (or plasma) can be proportional to the gas's temperature, pressure or a weighted sum of both.
Due to the completeness and accuracy of collisional radiative models for helium the temperature and density of plasmas which have helium present can be measured by taking ratios of the emission intensities of various Atomic spectral lines
Active spectroscopy
Active spectroscopic methods stimulate the plasma atoms in some way and observe the result (emission of radiation, absorption of the stimulating light or others).
Absorption spectroscopy
By shining through the plasma a laser with a wavelength, tuned to a certain transition of one of the species present in the plasma, the absorption profile of that transition could be obtained. This profile provides information not only for the plasma parameters, that could be obtained from the emission profile, but also for the line-integrated number density of the absorbing species.
Laser-induced fluorescence
If the plasma is not fully ionized but contains ions that fluoresce, laser-induced fluorescence can provide very detailed information on temperature, density, and flows.
Two-photon laser-induced fluorescence
The two-photon laser-induced fluorescence (TALIF) is a modification of the laser-induced fluorescence technique. In this approach the upper level is excited by absorbing two photons and registering the resulting emission from the excited state. The advantage of this approach is that the registered light from the fluorescence is with a different wavelength from the exciting laser beam, which leads to improved signal to noise ratio.
Optical effects from free electrons
The optical diagnostics above measure line radiation from atoms. Alternatively, the effects of free charges on electromagnetic radiation can be used as a diagnostic.
Thomson scattering
Scattering of laser light from the electrons in a plasma is known as Thomson scattering. The electron temperature can be determined very reliably from the Doppler broadening of the laser line. The electron density can be determined from the intensity of the scattered light, but a careful absolute calibration is required. Although Thomson scattering is dominated by scattering from electrons, since the electrons interact with the ions, in some circumstances information on the ion temperature can also be extracted.
Interferometry
If a plasma is placed in one arm of an interferometer, the phase shift will be proportional to the plasma density integrated along the path.
Faraday rotation
The Faraday effect will rotate the plane of polarization of a beam passing through a plasma with a magnetic field in the direction of the beam. This effect can be used as a diagnostic of the magnetic field, although the information is mixed with the density profile and is usually an integral value only.
Neutron diagnostics
Fusion plasmas produces 2.5 MeV and 14 MeV neutrons. By measuring the neutron flux, plasma properties such as ion temperature and fusion power can be determined.
See also
References
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Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.
A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running
The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more
There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang - One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting
In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang
Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules
Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.
A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running
The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more
There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang