AI-complete: Difference between revisions

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In the field of artificial intelligence, the most difficult problems are informally known as AI-complete or AI-hard, implying that the difficulty of these computational problems is equivalent to that of solving the central artificial intelligence problem—making computers as intelligent as people, or strong AI.^[1] To call a problem AI-complete reflects an attitude that it would not be solved by a simple specific algorithm.

AI-complete problems are hypothesised to include computer vision, natural language understanding, and dealing with unexpected circumstances while solving any real world problem.^[2]

With current technology, AI-complete problems cannot be solved by computer alone, but also require human computation. This property can be useful, for instance to test for the presence of humans as with CAPTCHAs, and for computer security to circumvent brute-force attacks.^[3]^[4]

History

The term was coined by Fanya Montalvo^[5] by analogy with NP-complete and NP-hard in complexity theory, which formally describes the most famous class of difficult problems.^[6] Early uses of the term are in Erik Mueller's 1987 Ph.D. dissertation^[7] and in Eric Raymond's 1991 Jargon File.^[8]

AI-complete problems

AI-complete problems are hypothesised to include:

Computer vision (and subproblems such as object recognition)
Natural language understanding (and subproblems such as text mining, machine translation, and word sense disambiguation)
Dealing with unexpected circumstances while solving any real world problem, whether it's navigation or planning or even the kind of reasoning done by expert systems.

Machine translation

Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church.

To translate accurately, a machine must be able to understand the text. It must be able to follow the author's argument, so it must have some ability to reason. It must have extensive world knowledge so that it knows what is being discussed — it must at least be familiar with all the same commonsense facts that the average human translator knows. Some of this knowledge is in the form of facts that can be explicitly represented, but some knowledge is unconscious and closely tied to the human body: for example, the machine may need to understand how an ocean makes one feel to accurately translate a specific metaphor in the text. It must also model the authors' goals, intentions, and emotional states to accurately reproduce them in a new language. In short, the machine is required to have wide variety of human intellectual skills, including reason, commonsense knowledge and the intuitions that underlie motion and manipulation, perception, and social intelligence. Machine translation, therefore, is believed to be AI-complete: it may require strong AI to be done as well as humans can do it.

Software brittleness

Mining Engineer (Excluding Oil ) Truman from Alma, loves to spend time knotting, largest property developers in singapore developers in singapore and stamp collecting. Recently had a family visit to Urnes Stave Church. Current AI systems can solve very simple restricted versions of AI-complete problems, but never in their full generality. When AI researchers attempt to "scale up" their systems to handle more complicated, real world situations, the programs tend to become excessively brittle without commonsense knowledge or a rudimentary understanding of the situation: they fail as unexpected circumstances outside of its original problem context begin to appear. When human beings are dealing with new situations in the world, they are helped immensely by the fact that they know what to expect: they know what all things around them are, why they are there, what they are likely to do and so on. They can recognize unusual situations and adjust accordingly. A machine without strong AI has no other skills to fall back on.^[9]

Formalization

Computational complexity theory deals with the relative computational difficulty of computable functions. By definition it does not cover problems whose solution is unknown or has not been characterised formally. Since many AI problems have no formalisation yet, conventional complexity theory does not allow the definition of AI-completeness.

To address this problem, a complexity theory for AI has been proposed.^[10] It is based on a model of computation that splits the computational burden between a computer and a human: one part is solved by computer and the other part solved by human. This is formalised by a human-assisted Turing machine. The formalisation defines algorithm complexity, problem complexity and reducibility which in turn allows equivalence classes to be defined.

The complexity of executing an algorithm with a human-assisted Turing machine is given by a pair $⟨ Φ_{H}, Φ_{M} ⟩$ , where the first element represents the complexity of the human's part and the second element is the complexity of the machine's part.

Results

The complexity of solving the following problems with a human-assisted Turing machine is:^[10]

Optical character recognition for printed text: $⟨ O (1), p o l y (n) ⟩$
Turing test:
- for an $n$ -sentence conversation where the oracle remembers the conversation history (persistent oracle): $⟨ O (n), O (n) ⟩$
- for an $n$ -sentence conversation where the conversation history must be retransmitted: $⟨ O (n), O (n^{2}) ⟩$
- for an $n$ -sentence conversation where the conversation history must be retransmitted and the person takes linear time to read the query: $⟨ O (n^{2}), O (n^{2}) ⟩$
ESP game: $⟨ O (n), O (n) ⟩$
Image labelling (based on the Arthur–Merlin protocol): $⟨ O (n), O (n) ⟩$
Image classification: human only: $⟨ O (n), O (n) ⟩$ , and with less reliance on the human: $⟨ O (\log n), O (n \log n) ⟩$ .

References

↑ Shapiro, Stuart C. (1992). Artificial Intelligence In Stuart C. Shapiro (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Artificial Intelligence (Second Edition, pp. 54–57). New York: John Wiley. (Section 4 is on "AI-Complete Tasks".)
↑ Roman V. Yampolskiy. Turing Test as a Defining Feature of AI-Completeness . In Artificial Intelligence, Evolutionary Computation and Metaheuristics (AIECM) --In the footsteps of Alan Turing. Xin-She Yang (Ed.). pp. 3-17. (Chapter 1). Springer, London. 2013. http://cecs.louisville.edu/ry/TuringTestasaDefiningFeature04270003.pdf
↑ Luis von Ahn, Manuel Blum, Nicholas Hopper, and John Langford. CAPTCHA: Using Hard AI Problems for Security. In Proceedings of Eurocrypt, Vol. 2656 (2003), pp. 294-311.
↑ Template:Cite paper (unpublished?)
↑ John C. Mallery. "Thinking About Foreign Policy: Finding an Appropriate Role for Artificially Intelligent Computers" Master's thesis, M.I.T. Political Science Department. 1988
↑ Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.

In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.

Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region

Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.

15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010.
↑ Mueller, Erik T. (1987, March). Daydreaming and Computation (Technical Report CSD-870017) Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles. ("Daydreaming is but one more AI-complete problem: if we could solve any one artificial intelligence problem, we could solve all the others", p. 302)
↑ Raymond, Eric S. (1991, March 22). Jargon File Version 2.8.1 (Definition of "AI-complete" first added to jargon file.)
↑ Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.

In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.

Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region

Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.

15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010
↑ ^10.0 ^10.1 Dafna Shahaf and Eyal Amir (2007) Towards a theory of AI completeness. Commonsense 2007, 8th International Symposium on Logical Formalizations of Commonsense Reasoning.

[Shapiro92-1] Shapiro, Stuart C. (1992). Artificial Intelligence In Stuart C. Shapiro (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Artificial Intelligence (Second Edition, pp. 54–57). New York: John Wiley. (Section 4 is on "AI-Complete Tasks".)

[2] Roman V. Yampolskiy. Turing Test as a Defining Feature of AI-Completeness . In Artificial Intelligence, Evolutionary Computation and Metaheuristics (AIECM) --In the footsteps of Alan Turing. Xin-She Yang (Ed.). pp. 3-17. (Chapter 1). Springer, London. 2013. http://cecs.louisville.edu/ry/TuringTestasaDefiningFeature04270003.pdf

[3] Luis von Ahn, Manuel Blum, Nicholas Hopper, and John Langford. CAPTCHA: Using Hard AI Problems for Security. In Proceedings of Eurocrypt, Vol. 2656 (2003), pp. 294-311.

[4] Template:Cite paper (unpublished?)

[5] John C. Mallery. "Thinking About Foreign Policy: Finding an Appropriate Role for Artificially Intelligent Computers" Master's thesis, M.I.T. Political Science Department. 1988

[6] Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.

In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.

Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region

Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.

15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010.

[7] Mueller, Erik T. (1987, March). Daydreaming and Computation (Technical Report CSD-870017) Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles. ("Daydreaming is but one more AI-complete problem: if we could solve any one artificial intelligence problem, we could solve all the others", p. 302)

[8] Raymond, Eric S. (1991, March 22). Jargon File Version 2.8.1 (Definition of "AI-complete" first added to jargon file.)

[9] Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.

Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.

In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.

Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region

Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.

15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.

To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010

[ucl.ac.uk-10] 10.0 ^10.1 Dafna Shahaf and Eyal Amir (2007) Towards a theory of AI completeness. Commonsense 2007, 8th International Symposium on Logical Formalizations of Commonsense Reasoning.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-Hello friend. Let me introduce myself. I am Lawrence though is not the name on my birth records. Hawaii is where her house can be. Interviewing is where my primary income derives from and the salary been recently really satisfactory. Caving is what my relatives and I watch. Go to my website track down out more: http://[http://www.hedgingplants.com/ www.hedgingplants.com]/
+In the field of [[artificial intelligence]], the most difficult problems are informally known as '''AI-complete''' or '''AI-hard''', implying that the difficulty of these computational problems is equivalent to that of solving the central artificial intelligence problem—making computers as intelligent as people, or [[strong AI]].<ref name="Shapiro92">Shapiro, Stuart C. (1992). [http://www.cse.buffalo.edu/~shapiro/Papers/ai.pdf Artificial Intelligence] In Stuart C. Shapiro (Ed.), ''Encyclopedia of Artificial Intelligence'' (Second Edition, pp.&nbsp;54–57). New York: John Wiley. (Section 4 is on "AI-Complete Tasks".)</ref>  To call a problem AI-complete reflects an attitude that it would not be solved by a simple specific algorithm.
+AI-complete problems are hypothesised to include [[computer vision]], [[natural language understanding]], and dealing with unexpected circumstances while solving any real world problem.<ref>Roman V. Yampolskiy. Turing Test as a Defining Feature of AI-Completeness . In Artificial Intelligence, Evolutionary Computation and Metaheuristics (AIECM) --In the footsteps of Alan Turing. Xin-She Yang (Ed.). pp. 3-17. (Chapter 1). Springer, London. 2013. http://cecs.louisville.edu/ry/TuringTestasaDefiningFeature04270003.pdf</ref>
+With current technology, AI-complete problems cannot be solved by computer alone, but also require [[human computation]].  This property can be useful, for instance to test for the presence of humans as with [[CAPTCHA]]s, and for [[computer security]] to circumvent [[brute-force attack]]s.<ref>Luis von Ahn, Manuel Blum, Nicholas Hopper, and John Langford. [http://www.captcha.net/captcha_crypt.pdf CAPTCHA: Using Hard AI Problems for Security]. In Proceedings of Eurocrypt, Vol. 2656 (2003), pp. 294-311.</ref><ref>{{cite paper | first = Richard | last = Bergmair | title = Natural Language Steganography and an "AI-complete" Security Primitive | id = {{citeseerx|10.1.1.105.129}} | date = January 7, 2006 }} (unpublished?)</ref>
+==History==
+The term was coined by [[Fanya Montalvo]]<ref> John C. Mallery. "Thinking About Foreign Policy: Finding an Appropriate Role for Artificially Intelligent Computers"  Master's thesis, M.I.T. Political Science Department. 1988</ref> by analogy with [[NP-complete]] and [[NP-hard]] in [[Computational complexity theory|complexity theory]], which formally describes the most famous class of difficult problems.<ref>{{Citation| last=Mallery | first=John C.  |year=1988 | url=http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/mallery88thinking.html | contribution=Thinking About Foreign Policy: Finding an Appropriate Role for Artificially Intelligent Computers | title=The 1988 Annual Meeting of the International Studies Association. | location=St. Louis, MO }}.</ref> Early uses of the term are in Erik Mueller's 1987 Ph.D. dissertation<ref>Mueller, Erik T. (1987, March). [ftp://ftp.cs.ucla.edu/tech-report/198_-reports/870017.pdf ''Daydreaming and Computation'' (Technical Report CSD-870017)] Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles. ("Daydreaming is but one more ''AI-complete'' problem: if we could solve any one artificial intelligence problem, we could solve all the others", p.&nbsp;302)</ref> and in [[Eric S. Raymond|Eric Raymond]]'s 1991 [[Jargon File]].<ref>Raymond, Eric S. (1991, March 22). [http://catb.org/esr/jargon/oldversions/jarg282.txt Jargon File Version 2.8.1] (Definition of "AI-complete" first added to jargon file.)</ref>
+==AI-complete problems==
+AI-complete problems are hypothesised to include:
+*[[Computer vision]] (and subproblems such as [[object recognition]])
+*[[Natural language understanding]] (and subproblems such as [[text mining]], [[machine translation]], and [[word sense disambiguation]])
+*Dealing with unexpected circumstances while solving any real world problem, whether it's [[robotic mapping|navigation]] or [[automated planning and scheduling|planning]] or even the kind of [[reasoning]] done by [[expert system]]s.
+===Machine translation===
+{{main|Machine translation}}
+To translate accurately, a machine must be able to understand the text. It must be able to follow the author's argument, so it must have some ability to [[artificial intelligence#Deduction, reasoning, problem solving|reason]]. It must have extensive [[commonsense knowledge|world knowledge]] so that it knows what is being discussed — it must at least be familiar with all the same commonsense facts that the average human translator knows. Some of this knowledge is in the form of facts that can be explicitly represented, but some knowledge is unconscious and closely tied to the human body: for example, the machine may need to understand how an ocean makes one ''feel'' to accurately translate a specific metaphor in the text. It must also model the authors' goals, intentions, and emotional states to accurately reproduce them in a new language. In short, the machine is required to have wide variety of human intellectual skills, including [[artificial intelligence#Deduction, reasoning, problem solving|reason]], [[commonsense knowledge]] and the intuitions that underlie [[robotics|motion and manipulation]], [[machine perception|perception]], and [[artificial intelligence#Social intelligence|social intelligence]]. [[Machine translation]], therefore, is believed to be AI-complete: it may require [[strong AI]] to be done as well as humans can do it.
+==Software brittleness==
+{{main|Software brittleness}}
+Current AI systems can solve very simple restricted versions of AI-complete problems, but never in their full generality. When AI researchers attempt to "scale up" their systems to handle more complicated, real world situations, the programs tend to become excessively [[brittle (software)|brittle]] without [[commonsense knowledge]] or a rudimentary understanding of the situation: they fail as unexpected circumstances outside of its original problem context begin to appear.  When human beings are dealing with new situations in the world, they are helped immensely by the fact that they know what to expect: they know what all things around them are, why they are there, what they are likely to do and so on. They can recognize unusual situations and adjust accordingly. A machine without [[strong AI]] has no other skills to fall back on.<ref>{{Citation | last=Lenat | first=Douglas |  last2=Guha | first2=R. V.| year = 1989 | title = Building Large Knowledge-Based Systems | publisher = Addison-Wesley| author-link=Douglas Lenat|pages=1–5}}</ref>
+==Formalization==
+[[Computational complexity theory]] deals with the relative computational difficulty of [[computable function]]s.  By definition it does not cover problems whose solution is unknown or has not been characterised formally.  Since many AI problems have no formalisation yet, conventional complexity theory does not allow the definition of AI-completeness.
+To address this problem, a complexity theory for AI has been proposed.<ref name="ucl.ac.uk">Dafna Shahaf and Eyal Amir (2007) [http://www.cs.uiuc.edu/~eyal/papers/ai-complete-commonsense07.pdf Towards a theory of AI completeness]. [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/commonsense07 Commonsense 2007,  8th International Symposium on Logical Formalizations of Commonsense Reasoning].</ref> It is based on a [[model of computation]] that splits the computational burden between a computer and a human: one part is solved by computer and the other part solved by human.  This is formalised by a '''human-assisted [[Turing machine]]'''.  The formalisation defines algorithm complexity, problem complexity and reducibility which in turn allows [[equivalence class]]es to be defined.
+The complexity of executing an algorithm with a human-assisted Turing machine is given by a pair <math>\langle\Phi_{H},\Phi_{M}\rangle</math>, where the first element represents the complexity of the human's part and the second element is the complexity of the machine's part.
+===Results===
+The complexity of solving the following problems with a human-assisted Turing machine is:<ref name="ucl.ac.uk"/>
+* [[Optical character recognition]] for printed text: <math>\langle O(1), poly(n) \rangle </math>
+* [[Turing test]]:
+** for an <math>n</math>-sentence conversation where the oracle remembers the conversation history (persistent oracle): <math>\langle O(n), O(n) \rangle </math>
+** for an <math>n</math>-sentence conversation where the conversation history must be retransmitted: <math>\langle O(n), O(n^2) \rangle </math>
+** for an <math>n</math>-sentence conversation where the conversation history must be retransmitted and the person takes linear time to read the query: <math>\langle O(n^2), O(n^2) \rangle </math>
+* [[ESP game]]: <math>\langle O(n), O(n) \rangle </math>
+* Image labelling (based on the [[Arthur–Merlin protocol]]): <math>\langle O(n), O(n) \rangle </math>
+* [[Object categorization from image search|Image classification]]: human only: <math>\langle O(n), O(n) \rangle </math>, and with less reliance on the human: <math>\langle O(\log n), O(n \log n) \rangle </math>.
+==See also==
+*[[ASR-complete]]
+*[[List of open problems in computer science]]
+*[[Synthetic intelligence]]
+==References==
+<references/>
+{{DEFAULTSORT:Ai-Complete}}
+[[Category:Artificial intelligence]]
+[[Category:Computational problems]]

AI-complete: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 01:01, 15 September 2013

Contents

History

AI-complete problems

Machine translation

Software brittleness

Formalization

Results

See also

References

Navigation menu

AI-complete: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 01:01, 15 September 2013

History

AI-complete problems

Machine translation

Software brittleness

Formalization

Results

See also

References

Navigation menu

Search