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This article is about the theories and mathematics of climate modeling. For computer-driven prediction of Earth's climate, see Global climate model.

Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the atmosphere, oceans, land surface, and ice. They are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the climate system to projections of future climate. The most talked-about use of climate models in recent years has been to project temperature changes resulting from increases in atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases.

All climate models take account of incoming energy from the sun as short wave electromagnetic radiation, chiefly visible and short-wave (near) infrared, as well as outgoing energy as long wave (far) infrared electromagnetic radiation from the earth. Any imbalance results in a change in temperature.

Models can range from relatively simple to quite complex:

A simple radiant heat transfer model that treats the earth as a single point and averages outgoing energy
this can be expanded vertically (radiative-convective models), or horizontally
finally, (coupled) atmosphere–ocean–sea ice global climate models discretise and solve the full equations for mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange.

This is not a full list; for example "box models" can be written to treat flows across and within ocean basins. Furthermore, other types of modelling can be interlinked, such as land use, allowing researchers to predict the interaction between climate and ecosystems.

Box models

Box models are simplified versions of complex systems, reducing them to boxes (or reservoirs) linked by fluxes. The boxes are assumed to be mixed homogeneously. Within a given box, the concentration of any chemical species is therefore uniform. However, the abundance of a species within a given box may vary as a function of time due to the input to (or loss from) the box or due to the production, consumption or decay of this species within the box.

Simple box models, i.e. box model with a small number of boxes whose properties (e.g. their volume) do not change with time, are often useful to derive analytical formulas describing the dynamics and steady-state abundance of a species. More complex box models are usually solved using numerical techniques.

Box models are used extensively to model environmental systems or ecosystems and in studies of ocean circulation and the carbon cycle.^[1]

Zero-dimensional models

A very simple model of the radiative equilibrium of the Earth is

(1-a)S\pi r^{2}=4\pi r^{2}\epsilon \sigma T^{4}

where

the left hand side represents the incoming energy from the Sun
the right hand side represents the outgoing energy from the Earth, calculated from the Stefan-Boltzmann law assuming a model-fictive temperature, T, sometimes called the 'equilibrium temperature of the Earth', that is to be found,

and

S is the solar constant – the incoming solar radiation per unit area—about 1367 W·m⁻²
$a$ is the Earth's average albedo, measured to be 0.3.^[2]^[3]
r is Earth's radius—approximately 6.371×10⁶m
π is the mathematical constant (3.141...)
$\sigma$ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant—approximately 5.67×10⁻⁸ J·K⁻⁴·m⁻²·s⁻¹
$\epsilon$ is the effective emissivity of earth, about 0.612

The constant πr² can be factored out, giving

(1-a)S=4\epsilon \sigma T^{4}

Solving for the temperature,

T={\sqrt[{4}]{\frac {(1-a)S}{4\epsilon \sigma }}}

This yields an apparent effective average earth temperature of Template:Convert.^[4] This is because the above equation represents the effective radiative temperature of the Earth (including the clouds and atmosphere). The use of effective emissivity and albedo account for the greenhouse effect.

This very simple model is quite instructive, and the only model that could fit on a page. For example, it easily determines the effect on average earth temperature of changes in solar constant or change of albedo or effective earth emissivity.

The average emissivity of the earth is readily estimated from available data. The emissivities of terrestrial surfaces are all in the range of 0.96 to 0.99^[5]^[6] (except for some small desert areas which may be as low as 0.7). Clouds, however, which cover about half of the earth’s surface, have an average emissivity of about 0.5^[7] (which must be reduced by the fourth power of the ratio of cloud absolute temperature to average earth absolute temperature) and an average cloud temperature of about Template:Convert.^[8] Taking all this properly into account results in an effective earth emissivity of about 0.64 (earth average temperature Template:Convert).

This simple model readily determines the effect of changes in solar output or change of earth albedo or effective earth emissivity on average earth temperature. It says nothing, however about what might cause these things to change. Zero-dimensional models do not address the temperature distribution on the earth or the factors that move energy about the earth.

Radiative-convective models

The zero-dimensional model above, using the solar constant and given average earth temperature, determines the effective earth emissivity of long wave radiation emitted to space. This can be refined in the vertical to a one-dimensional radiative-convective model, which considers two processes of energy transport:

upwelling and downwelling radiative transfer through atmospheric layers that both absorb and emit infrared radiation
upward transport of heat by convection (especially important in the lower troposphere).

The radiative-convective models have advantages over the simple model: they can determine the effects of varying greenhouse gas concentrations on effective emissivity and therefore the surface temperature. But added parameters are needed to determine local emissivity and albedo and address the factors that move energy about the earth.

Effect of ice-albedo feedback on global sensitivity in a one-dimensional radiative-convective climate model.^[9]^[10]^[11]

Higher-dimension models

The zero-dimensional model may be expanded to consider the energy transported horizontally in the atmosphere. This kind of model may well be zonally averaged. This model has the advantage of allowing a rational dependence of local albedo and emissivity on temperature – the poles can be allowed to be icy and the equator warm – but the lack of true dynamics means that horizontal transports have to be specified.^[12]

EMICs (Earth-system models of intermediate complexity)

Depending on the nature of questions asked and the pertinent time scales, there are, on the one extreme, conceptual, more inductive models, and, on the other extreme, general circulation models operating at the highest spatial and temporal resolution currently feasible. Models of intermediate complexity bridge the gap. One example is the Climber-3 model. Its atmosphere is a 2.5-dimensional statistical-dynamical model with 7.5° × 22.5° resolution and time step of half a day; the ocean is MOM-3 (Modular Ocean Model) with a 3.75° × 3.75° grid and 24 vertical levels.^[13]

GCMs (global climate models or general circulation models)

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Three (or more properly, four since time is also considered) dimensional GCM's discretise the equations for fluid motion and energy transfer and integrate these over time. They also contain parametrisations for processes—such as convection—that occur on scales too small to be resolved directly.

Atmospheric GCMs (AGCMs) model the atmosphere and impose sea surface temperatures as boundary conditions. Coupled atmosphere-ocean GCMs (AOGCMs, e.g. HadCM3, EdGCM, GFDL CM2.X, ARPEGE-Climat)^[14] combine the two models. The first general circulation climate model that combined both oceanic and atmospheric processes was developed in the late 1960s at the NOAA Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory^[15] AOGCMs represent the pinnacle of complexity in climate models and internalise as many processes as possible. However, they are still under development and uncertainties remain. They may be coupled to models of other processes, such as the carbon cycle, so as to better model feedback effects.

Research and development

There are three major types of institution where climate models are developed, implemented and used:

National meteorological services. Most national weather services have a climatology section.
Universities. Relevant departments include atmospheric sciences, meteorology, climatology, and geography.
National and international research laboratories. Examples include the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR, in Boulder, Colorado, USA), the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL, in Princeton, New Jersey, USA), the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research (in Exeter, UK), the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology in Hamburg, Germany, or the Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l'Environnement (LSCE), France, to name but a few.

The World Climate Research Programme (WCRP), hosted by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), coordinates research activities on climate modelling worldwide.

A 2012 U.S. National Research Council report discussed how the large and diverse U.S. climate modeling enterprise could evolve to become more unified.^[16] Efficiencies could be gained by developing a common software infrastructure shared by all U.S. climate researchers, and holding an annual climate modeling forum, the report found.^[17]

Climate models on the web

Dapper/DChart — plot and download model data referenced by the Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (No longer available)
ccsm.ucar.edu — NCAR/UCAR Community Climate System Model (CCSM)
climateprediction.net — do it yourself climate prediction
giss.nasa.gov — the primary research GCM developed by NASA/GISS (Goddard Institute for Space Studies)
edgcm.columbia.edu — the original NASA/GISS global climate model (GCM) with a user-friendly interface for PCs and Macs
cccma.be.ec.gc.ca — CCCma model info and interface to retrieve model data
nomads.gfdl.noaa.gov — NOAA / Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory CM2 global climate model info and model output data files
climate.uvic.ca — University of Victoria Global climate model, free for download. Leading researcher was a contributing author to the recent IPCC report on climate change.
vimeo.com/user12523377/videos — Visualizations of climate models of ETH Zurich

Notes and references

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Bibliography

20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534

External links

(IPCC 2001 section 8.3) — on model hierarchy
(IPCC 2001 section 8) — much information on coupled GCM's
Coupled Model Intercomparison Project
On the Radiative and Dynamical Feedbacks over the Equatorial Pacific Cold Tongue
Basic Radiation Calculations — The Discovery of Global Warming
20 year-old Real Estate Agent Rusty from Saint-Paul, has hobbies and interests which includes monopoly, property developers in singapore and poker. Will soon undertake a contiki trip that may include going to the Lower Valley of the Omo.

My blog: http://www.primaboinca.com/view_profile.php?userid=5889534
Climate Modeling 101 website by the U.S. National Research Council — This site is a primer on how climate models work. The information is based on expert, consensus reports from the U.S. National Research Council's Board on Atmospheric Sciences and Climate. The most recent is A National Strategy for Advancing Climate Modeling.

Template:Global warming Template:Atmospheric, Oceanographic and Climate Models Template:Computer modeling Template:Portal bar

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Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

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A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
↑ One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
↑ Template:Cite web
↑ eospso.gsfc.nasa.gov
↑ icess.ucsb.edu
↑ One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
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↑ pubs.giss.nasa.gov
↑ One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang
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↑ celebrating200years.noaa.gov
↑ Template:Cite web
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[Sarmiento1984-1] One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang

[2] One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang

[3] Template:Cite web

[4] spso.gsfc.nasa.gov

[5] ss.ucsb.edu

[6] One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang

[7] 55 years old Systems Administrator Antony from Clarence Creek, really loves learning, PC Software and aerobics. Likes to travel and was inspired after making a journey to Historic Ensemble of the Potala Palace.

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[8] 55 years old Systems Administrator Antony from Clarence Creek, really loves learning, PC Software and aerobics. Likes to travel and was inspired after making a journey to Historic Ensemble of the Potala Palace.

You can view that web-site... ccleaner free download

[9] ubs.giss.nasa.gov

[10] One of the biggest reasons investing in a Singapore new launch is an effective things is as a result of it is doable to be lent massive quantities of money at very low interest rates that you should utilize to purchase it. Then, if property values continue to go up, then you'll get a really high return on funding (ROI). Simply make sure you purchase one of the higher properties, reminiscent of the ones at Fernvale the Riverbank or any Singapore landed property Get Earnings by means of Renting

In its statement, the singapore property listing - website link, government claimed that the majority citizens buying their first residence won't be hurt by the new measures. Some concessions can even be prolonged to chose teams of consumers, similar to married couples with a minimum of one Singaporean partner who are purchasing their second property so long as they intend to promote their first residential property. Lower the LTV limit on housing loans granted by monetary establishments regulated by MAS from 70% to 60% for property purchasers who are individuals with a number of outstanding housing loans on the time of the brand new housing purchase. Singapore Property Measures - 30 August 2010 The most popular seek for the number of bedrooms in Singapore is 4, followed by 2 and three. Lush Acres EC @ Sengkang

Discover out more about real estate funding in the area, together with info on international funding incentives and property possession. Many Singaporeans have been investing in property across the causeway in recent years, attracted by comparatively low prices. However, those who need to exit their investments quickly are likely to face significant challenges when trying to sell their property – and could finally be stuck with a property they can't sell. Career improvement programmes, in-house valuation, auctions and administrative help, venture advertising and marketing, skilled talks and traisning are continuously planned for the sales associates to help them obtain better outcomes for his or her shoppers while at Knight Frank Singapore. No change Present Rules

Extending the tax exemption would help. The exemption, which may be as a lot as $2 million per family, covers individuals who negotiate a principal reduction on their existing mortgage, sell their house short (i.e., for lower than the excellent loans), or take part in a foreclosure course of. An extension of theexemption would seem like a common-sense means to assist stabilize the housing market, but the political turmoil around the fiscal-cliff negotiations means widespread sense could not win out. Home Minority Chief Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) believes that the mortgage relief provision will be on the table during the grand-cut price talks, in response to communications director Nadeam Elshami. Buying or promoting of blue mild bulbs is unlawful.

A vendor's stamp duty has been launched on industrial property for the primary time, at rates ranging from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. The Authorities might be trying to reassure the market that they aren't in opposition to foreigners and PRs investing in Singapore's property market. They imposed these measures because of extenuating components available in the market." The sale of new dual-key EC models will even be restricted to multi-generational households only. The models have two separate entrances, permitting grandparents, for example, to dwell separately. The vendor's stamp obligation takes effect right this moment and applies to industrial property and plots which might be offered inside three years of the date of buy. JLL named Best Performing Property Brand for second year running

The data offered is for normal info purposes only and isn't supposed to be personalised investment or monetary advice. Motley Fool Singapore contributor Stanley Lim would not personal shares in any corporations talked about. Singapore private home costs increased by 1.eight% within the fourth quarter of 2012, up from 0.6% within the earlier quarter. Resale prices of government-built HDB residences which are usually bought by Singaporeans, elevated by 2.5%, quarter on quarter, the quickest acquire in five quarters. And industrial property, prices are actually double the levels of three years ago. No withholding tax in the event you sell your property. All your local information regarding vital HDB policies, condominium launches, land growth, commercial property and more

There are various methods to go about discovering the precise property. Some local newspapers (together with the Straits Instances ) have categorised property sections and many local property brokers have websites. Now there are some specifics to consider when buying a 'new launch' rental. Intended use of the unit Every sale begins with 10 p.c low cost for finish of season sale; changes to 20 % discount storewide; follows by additional reduction of fiftyand ends with last discount of 70 % or extra. Typically there is even a warehouse sale or transferring out sale with huge mark-down of costs for stock clearance. Deborah Regulation from Expat Realtor shares her property market update, plus prime rental residences and houses at the moment available to lease Esparina EC @ Sengkang

[11] rida.no

[12] shodor.org

[13] -potsdam.de

[14] rm.meteo.fr

[15] rating200years.noaa.gov

[16] Template:Cite web

[17] Template:Cite web

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[3]

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-All web marketers need to see their enterprise be successful. Nevertheless, not every marketing circumstances are similar. In order to determine what leads to your ability to succeed, you need to discover up to you are able to and try various methods. The next post provides you with some advice on increasing your web based business.<br><br>Necessitating visitors to your website to sign up on their own can be risky. From a web advertising and marketing standpoint you are losing potential clients with each hoop you require targeted traffic to leap through. Private enrollment can be a notably substantial hoop and plenty of internet users will run away rather than jumping for doing it. You are able to improve your guest visitors by adding as much of your internet site outside the house signing up limits as possible.<br><br>An important part of online marketing is website existence and presence. It's not sufficient any more to get a nicely-created, keyword-unique website. 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Inquiring a buyer the things they would alter about your website is a low priced and good way to resolve any concerns, and also building rapport together with your buyer.<br><br>Every website owner ought to have a great knowing of people who visit his or her internet site. No webmaster requires a much better comprehending than the one who starts an associate advertising and marketing plan. The internet site owner should choose affiliate marketers, paying attention to individuals as their services and products produce a very good fit with the passions from the website's guests.<br><br>Try to create your web page super easy to get around for your clients. Cluster back links in a single combined row or column, that will reduce the chance of your website visitors acquiring misplaced and irritated. 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Besides this offer you a individual ability to sell, nevertheless it demonstrates your potential customers that you are currently the sort of enterprise that cares and takes periods to meet their requirements. Even when a transaction will not be manufactured being a immediate result of the phone call, it can cultivate the commitment from the consumer, which can mean future product sales and [http://en.Search.Wordpress.com/?q=testimonials testimonials].<br><br>There exists so much to discover how you can succeed  comparatif adsl in online marketing. Do not be frustrated if one thing fails to workout for you personally. You ought to be patient and check out various methods. Understand up to it is possible to and learn from your problems. 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+:''This article is about the theories and mathematics of climate modeling. For computer-driven prediction of Earth's climate,  see [[Global climate model]].''
+[[File:Global Climate Model.png|thumb|right|350px|Climate models are systems of [[differential equations]] based on the basic laws of [[physics]], [[Fluid dynamics|fluid motion]], and [[chemistry]]. To “run” a model, scientists divide the planet into a 3-dimensional grid, apply the basic equations, and evaluate the results. Atmospheric models calculate [[winds]], [[heat transfer]], [[radiation]], [[relative humidity]], and surface [[hydrology]] within each grid and evaluate interactions with neighboring points.]]
+'''Climate models''' use [[quantitative method]]s to simulate the interactions of the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]], [[ocean]]s, [[land surface]], and [[cryosphere|ice]]. They are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the climate system to projections of future [[climate]].  The most talked-about use of climate models in recent years has been to project temperature changes resulting from increases in atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases.
+All climate models take account of incoming [[energy]] from the sun as short wave [[electromagnetic radiation]], chiefly [[Visible spectrum|visible]] and short-wave (near) [[infrared]], as well as outgoing energy as long wave (far) [[infrared]] electromagnetic radiation from the earth. Any imbalance results in a [[First law of thermodynamics|change in temperature]].
+Models can range from relatively simple to quite complex:
+* A simple [[radiant heat]] transfer model that treats the earth as a single point and averages outgoing energy
+* this can be expanded vertically (radiative-convective models), or horizontally
+* finally, (coupled) atmosphere–ocean–[[sea ice]] '''[[global climate model]]s''' discretise and solve the full equations for mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange.
+This is not a full list; for example "box models" can be written to treat flows across and within ocean basins.  Furthermore, other types of modelling can be interlinked, such as [[land use]], allowing researchers to predict the interaction between climate and [[ecosystems]].
+==Box models==
+'''Box models''' are simplified versions of complex systems, reducing them to boxes (or [[reservoir]]s) linked by fluxes. The boxes are assumed to be mixed homogeneously. Within a given box, the concentration of any [[chemical species]] is therefore uniform. However, the abundance of a species within a given box may vary as a function of time due to the input to (or loss from) the box or due to the production, consumption or decay of this species within the box.
+Simple box models, i.e. box model with a small number of boxes whose properties (e.g. their volume) do not change with time, are often useful to derive analytical formulas describing the dynamics and steady-state abundance of a species. More complex box models are usually solved using numerical techniques.
+Box models are used extensively to model environmental systems or ecosystems and in studies of [[ocean circulation]] and the [[carbon cycle]].<ref name=Sarmiento1984>{{cite journal
+ | author = Sarmiento, J.L.
+ | coauthors = Toggweiler, J.R.
+ | year = 1984
+ | title = A new model for the role of the oceans in determining atmospheric P CO 2
+ | journal = Nature
+ | volume = 308
+ | pages = 621–24
+ | doi = 10.1038/308621a0
+ | url = http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v308/n5960/abs/308621a0.html
+ | issue=5960
+ |bibcode = 1984Natur.308..621S }}</ref>
+== Zero-dimensional models ==
+A very simple model of the [[radiative equilibrium]] of the Earth is
+:<math>(1-a)S \pi r^2 = 4 \pi r^2 \epsilon \sigma T^4</math>
+where
+* the left hand side represents the incoming energy from the Sun
+* the right hand side represents the outgoing energy from the Earth, calculated from the [[Stefan-Boltzmann law]] assuming a model-fictive temperature, ''T'', sometimes called the 'equilibrium temperature of the Earth', that is to be found,
+and
+* ''S'' is the [[solar constant]] – the incoming solar radiation per unit area—about 1367 W·m<sup>−2</sup>
+* ''<math>a</math>'' is the [[Earth]]'s average [[albedo]], measured to be 0.3.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Goode |first=P. R. |coauthors=''et al.'' |year=2001 |title=Earthshine Observations of the Earth’s Reflectance |journal=Geophys. Res. Lett. |volume=28 |issue=9 |pages=1671–4 |doi=10.1029/2000GL012580 |bibcode=2001GeoRL..28.1671G}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Scientists Watch Dark Side of the Moon to Monitor Earth's Climate |url=http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/prrl/prrl0113.html |work=American Geophysical Union | date=April 17, 2001 }}</ref>
+* ''r'' is Earth's radius—approximately 6.371&times;10<sup>6</sup >m
+* ''[[pi|π]]'' is the mathematical constant (3.141...)
+* ''<math> \sigma </math>'' is the [[Stefan-Boltzmann constant]]—approximately 5.67&times;10<sup>−8</sup> J·K<sup>−4</sup>·m<sup>−2</sup>·s<sup>−1</sup>
+* ''<math> \epsilon </math>'' is the effective [[emissivity]] of earth, about 0.612
+The constant ''πr''<sup>2</sup> can be factored out, giving
+:<math>(1-a)S = 4 \epsilon \sigma T^4</math>
+Solving for the temperature,
+:<math>T = \sqrt[4]{ \frac{(1-a)S}{4 \epsilon \sigma}}</math>
+This yields an apparent effective average earth temperature of {{convert|288|K|abbr=on|lk=on}}.<ref>[http://eospso.gsfc.nasa.gov/ftp_docs/lithographs/CERES_litho.pdf eospso.gsfc.nasa.gov]</ref> This is because the above equation represents the effective ''radiative'' temperature of the Earth (including the clouds and atmosphere). The use of effective emissivity and albedo account for the [[greenhouse effect]].
+This very simple model is quite instructive, and the only model that could fit on a page. For example, it easily determines the effect on average earth temperature of changes in solar constant or change of albedo or effective earth emissivity.
+The average emissivity of the earth is readily estimated from available data. The emissivities of terrestrial surfaces are all in the range of 0.96 to 0.99<ref>[http://www.icess.ucsb.edu/modis/EMIS/html/seawater.html icess.ucsb.edu]</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1175/JCLI3720.1 |author=Jin M, Liang S |title=An Improved Land Surface Emissivity Parameter for Land Surface Models Using Global Remote Sensing Observations |journal=J. Climate |volume=19 |issue=12 |pages=2867–81 |date=15 June 2006 |url=http://www.glue.umd.edu/~sliang/papers/Jin2006.emissivity.pdf|bibcode = 2006JCli...19.2867J }}</ref> (except for some small desert areas which may be as low as 0.7). Clouds, however, which cover about half of the earth’s surface, have an average emissivity of about 0.5<ref>{{cite conference |author=T.R. Shippert, S.A. Clough, P.D. Brown, W.L. Smith, R.O. Knuteson, and S.A. Ackerman |title=Spectral Cloud Emissivities from LBLRTM/AERI QME  |booktitle=Proceedings of the Eighth Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) Science Team Meeting  March 1998 Tucson, Arizona |url=http://www.arm.gov/publications/proceedings/conf08/extended_abs/shippert_tr.pdf }}</ref> (which must be reduced by the fourth power of the ratio of cloud absolute temperature to average earth absolute temperature) and an average cloud temperature of about {{convert|258|K|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite conference |author=A.G. Gorelik, V. Sterljadkin, E. Kadygrov, and A. Koldaev |title=Microwave and IR Radiometry for Estimation of Atmospheric Radiation Balance and Sea Ice Formation |booktitle=Proceedings of the Eleventh Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) Science Team Meeting March 2001 Atlanta, Georgia |url=http://www.arm.gov/publications/proceedings/conf11/extended_abs/gorelik_ag.pdf }}</ref> Taking all this properly into account results in an effective earth emissivity of about 0.64 (earth average temperature {{convert|285|K|abbr=on}}).
+This simple model readily determines the effect of changes in solar output or change of earth albedo or effective earth emissivity on average earth temperature. It says nothing, however about what might cause these things to change. Zero-dimensional models do not address the temperature distribution on the earth or the factors that move energy about the earth.
+== Radiative-convective models ==
+The zero-dimensional model above, using the solar constant and given average earth temperature, determines the effective earth emissivity of long wave radiation emitted to space. This can be refined in the vertical to a one-dimensional radiative-convective model, which considers two processes of energy transport:
+* upwelling and downwelling radiative transfer through atmospheric layers that both absorb and emit infrared radiation
+* upward transport of heat by convection (especially important in the lower [[troposphere]]).
+The radiative-convective models have advantages over the simple model: they can determine the effects of varying [[greenhouse gas]] concentrations on effective emissivity and therefore the surface temperature. But added parameters are needed to determine local emissivity and albedo and address the factors that move energy about the earth.
+Effect of ice-albedo feedback on global sensitivity in a one-dimensional radiative-convective climate model.<ref>[http://pubs.giss.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/abstract.cgi?id=wa03100m pubs.giss.nasa.gov]</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
+  | last = Wang
+  | first = W.C.
+  | coauthors = P.H. Stone
+  | title = Effect of ice-albedo feedback on global sensitivity in a one-dimensional radiative-convective climate model
+  | journal = J. Atmos. Sci.
+  | volume = 37
+  | pages = 545–52
+  | year = 1980
+  | url = http://pubs.giss.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/abstract.cgi?id=wa03100m
+  | doi = 10.1175/1520-0469(1980)037<0545:EOIAFO>2.0.CO;2
+  | accessdate = 2010-04-22
+  | bibcode=1980JAtS...37..545W
+  }}</ref><ref>[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/258.htm grida.no]</ref>
+== Higher-dimension models ==
+The zero-dimensional model may be expanded to consider the energy transported horizontally in the atmosphere. This kind of model may well be [[Zonal and meridional|zonally]] averaged. This model has the advantage of allowing a rational dependence of local albedo and emissivity on temperature – the poles can be allowed to be icy and the equator warm – but the lack of true dynamics means that horizontal transports have to be specified.<ref>[http://www.shodor.org/master/environmental/general/energy/application.html shodor.org]</ref>
+== EMICs (Earth-system models of intermediate complexity) ==
+Depending on the nature of questions asked and the pertinent time scales, there are, on the one extreme,  conceptual, more inductive models, and, on the other extreme, [[general circulation model]]s operating at the highest spatial and temporal resolution currently feasible. Models of intermediate complexity bridge the gap. One example is the Climber-3 model. Its atmosphere is a 2.5-dimensional statistical-dynamical model with 7.5° × 22.5° resolution and time step of half a day;  the ocean is MOM-3 ([[Modular Ocean Model]]) with a 3.75° × 3.75° grid and 24 vertical levels.<ref>[http://www.pik-potsdam.de/emics/ pik-potsdam.de]</ref>
+== GCMs (global climate models or general circulation models) ==
+{{Main|Global climate model}}
+Three (or more properly, four since time is also considered) dimensional GCM's discretise the equations for fluid motion and energy transfer and integrate these over time. They also contain parametrisations for processes—such as convection—that occur on scales too small to be resolved directly.
+Atmospheric GCMs (AGCMs) model the atmosphere and impose [[sea surface temperature]]s as boundary conditions. Coupled atmosphere-ocean GCMs (AOGCMs, e.g. [[HadCM3]], [[EdGCM]], [[GFDL CM2.X]], ARPEGE-Climat)<ref>[http://www.cnrm.meteo.fr/gmgec/site_engl/arpege/arpege_en.html cnrm.meteo.fr]</ref> combine the two models. The first general circulation climate model that combined both oceanic and atmospheric processes was developed in the late 1960s at the [[NOAA]] [[Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory]]<ref>[http://celebrating200years.noaa.gov/breakthroughs/climate_model/welcome.html celebrating200years.noaa.gov]</ref> AOGCMs represent the pinnacle of complexity in climate models and internalise as many processes as possible. However, they are still under development and uncertainties remain.  They may be coupled to models of other processes, such as the [[carbon cycle]], so as to better model feedback effects.
+== Research and development ==
+There are three major types of institution where climate models are developed, implemented and used:
+* National meteorological services. Most national weather services have a [[climatology]] section.
+* Universities. Relevant departments include atmospheric sciences, meteorology, climatology, and geography.
+* National and international research laboratories. Examples include the [[National Center for Atmospheric Research]] (NCAR, in [[Boulder, Colorado]], USA), the [[Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory]] (GFDL, in [[Princeton, New Jersey]], USA), the [[Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research]] (in [[Exeter]], UK), the [http://www.mpimet.mpg.de Max Planck Institute for Meteorology] in Hamburg, Germany, or the Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l'Environnement (LSCE), France, to name but a few.
+The [[World Climate Research Programme]] (WCRP), hosted by the [[World Meteorological Organization]] (WMO), coordinates research activities on climate modelling worldwide.
+A 2012 [[U.S. National Research Council]] report discussed how the large and diverse U.S. climate modeling enterprise could evolve to become more unified.<ref>{{cite web | title=U.S. National Research Council Report, ''A National Strategy for Advancing Climate Modeling'' | url=http://dels.nas.edu/Report/National-Strategy-Advancing-Climate/13430 }}</ref> Efficiencies could be gained by developing a common software infrastructure shared by all U.S. climate researchers, and holding an annual climate modeling forum, the report found.<ref>{{cite web | title=U.S. National Research Council Report-in-Brief, ''A National Strategy for Advancing Climate Modeling'' | url=http://dels.nas.edu/Materials/Report-In-Brief/4291-Climate-Modeling}}</ref>
+== See also ==
+* [[Atmospheric Radiation Measurement]] (ARM) (in the US)
+* [[Climateprediction.net]]
+* [[GFDL CM2.X]]
+* [[Numerical Weather Prediction]]
+* [[Tropical cyclone prediction model]]
+== Climate models on the web ==
+* [http://dapper.pmel.noaa.gov/dchart/index.html?cid=AAAAHg@@ Dapper/DChart] — plot and download model data referenced by the Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) of the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]]. (No longer available)
+* [http://www.ccsm.ucar.edu/ ccsm.ucar.edu] — [[NCAR]]/[[University Corporation for Atmospheric Research|UCAR]] [[Community Climate System Model]] (CCSM)
+* [http://www.climateprediction.net climateprediction.net] — do it yourself climate prediction
+* [http://www.giss.nasa.gov/tools/modelE/ giss.nasa.gov] — the primary research GCM developed by NASA/GISS (Goddard Institute for Space Studies)
+* [http://edgcm.columbia.edu/ edgcm.columbia.edu] — the original NASA/GISS global climate model (GCM) with a user-friendly interface for PCs and Macs
+* [http://www.cccma.bc.ec.gc.ca/ cccma.be.ec.gc.ca] — [[CCCma]] model info and interface to retrieve model data
+* [http://nomads.gfdl.noaa.gov/CM2.X/ nomads.gfdl.noaa.gov] — [[NOAA]] / [[Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory]] CM2 global climate model info and model output data files
+* [http://www.climate.uvic.ca/ climate.uvic.ca] — [[University of Victoria]] Global climate model, free for download. Leading researcher was a contributing author to the recent [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change|IPCC]] report on climate change.
+* [http://vimeo.com/user12523377/videos vimeo.com/user12523377/videos] — Visualizations of climate models of ETH Zurich
+== Notes and references==
+{{Reflist|2}}
+==Bibliography==
+* {{cite book |author= Ian Roulstone and John Norbury |title=Invisible in the Storm: the role of mathematics in understanding weather |url=http://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Invisible_in_the_Storm.html?id=qnMrFEHMrWwC&redir_esc=y|year=2013 |publisher=Princeton University Press}}
+==External links==
+* [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/313.htm (IPCC 2001 section 8.3)] — on model hierarchy
+* [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/308.htm (IPCC 2001 section 8)] — much information on coupled GCM's
+* [http://www-pcmdi.llnl.gov/projects/modeldoc/cmip/index.html Coupled Model Intercomparison Project]
+* [http://ams.allenpress.com/amsonline/?request=get-abstract&doi=10.1175%2F2786.1 On the Radiative and Dynamical Feedbacks over the Equatorial Pacific Cold Tongue]
+* [http://www.aip.org/history/climate/Radmath.htm Basic Radiation Calculations] — The Discovery of Global Warming
+*{{cite book |author=Henderson-Sellers, A.; Robinson, P. J. |title=Contemporary Climatology |publisher=Longman |location=New York |year=1999 |isbn=0-582-27631-4 |url=http://www.pearsoned.co.uk/Bookshop/detail.asp?item=100000000002249}}
+* [http://nas-sites.org/climatemodeling/ Climate Modeling 101 website] by the [[U.S. National Research Council]] — This site is a primer on how climate models work. The information is based on expert, consensus reports from the [[U.S. National Research Council]]'s Board on Atmospheric Sciences and Climate. The most recent is [http://dels.nas.edu/Report/National-Strategy-Advancing-Climate/13430 ''A National Strategy for Advancing Climate Modeling''].
+{{Global warming}}
+{{Atmospheric, Oceanographic and Climate Models}}
+{{Computer modeling}}
+{{Portal bar|Energy|Global warming}}
+{{DEFAULTSORT:Climate Model}}
+[[Category:Climate change science]]
+[[Category:Numerical climate and weather models]]
+[[Category:Climate change modelling| ]]