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In linear algebra, a defective matrix is a square matrix that does not have a complete basis of eigenvectors, and is therefore not diagonalizable. In particular, an n × n matrix is defective if and only if it does not have n linearly independent eigenvectors. A complete basis is formed by augmenting the eigenvectors with generalized eigenvectors, which are necessary for solving defective systems of ordinary differential equations and other problems.

A defective matrix always has fewer than n distinct eigenvalues, since distinct eigenvalues always have linearly independent eigenvectors. In particular, a defective matrix has one or more eigenvalues λ with algebraic multiplicity $m>1$ (that is, they are multiple roots of the characteristic polynomial), but fewer than m linearly independent eigenvectors associated with λ. However, every eigenvalue with multiplicity m always has m linearly independent generalized eigenvectors.

A Hermitian matrix (or the special case of a real symmetric matrix) or a unitary matrix is never defective; more generally, a normal matrix (which includes Hermitian and unitary as special cases) is never defective.

Jordan block

Any Jordan block of size 2×2 or larger is defective. For example, the n × n Jordan block,

$J=\left[\begin{array}{cccc}\lambda & 1& & \\ & \lambda & \ddots & \\ & & \ddots & 1\\ & & & \lambda \end{array}\right],$

has an eigenvalue, λ, with multiplicity n, but only one distinct eigenvector,

$v=\left[\begin{array}{c}1\\ 0\\ ⋮\\ 0\end{array}\right].$

Example

A simple example of a defective matrix is:

$\left[\begin{array}{cc}3& 1\\ 0& 3\end{array}\right]$

which has a double eigenvalue of 3 but only one distinct eigenvector

$\left[\begin{array}{c}1\\ 0\end{array}\right]$

(and constant multiples thereof).

See also

• Jordan normal form

References

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