Theoretical and experimental justification for the Schrödinger equation

File:10 Türk Lirası reverse.jpg

Arf and a formula for the Arf invariant appear on the reverse side of the 2009 Turkish 10 Lira note

In mathematics, the Arf invariant of a nonsingular quadratic form over a field of characteristic 2 was defined by Turkish mathematician Template:Harvs when he started the systematic study of quadratic forms over arbitrary fields of characteristic 2. The Arf invariant is the substitute, in characteristic 2, of the discriminant for quadratic forms in characteristic not 2. Arf used his invariant, among others, in his endeavor to classify quadratic forms in characteristic 2.

In the special case of the 2-element field F₂ the Arf invariant can be described as the element of F₂ that occurs most often among the values of the form. Two nonsingular quadratic forms over F₂ are isomorphic if and only if they have the same dimension and the same Arf invariant. This fact was essentially known to Template:Harvtxt, even for any finite field of characteristic 2, and it follows from Arf's results for an arbitrary perfect field. An assessment of Arf's results in the framework of the theory of quadratic forms can be found in,

The Arf invariant is particularly applied in geometric topology, where it is primarily used to define an invariant of (4k+2)-dimensional manifolds (singly even-dimension manifolds: surfaces (2-manifolds), 6-manifolds, 10-manifolds, etc.) with certain additional structure called a framing, and thus the Arf–Kervaire invariant and the Arf invariant of a knot. The Arf invariant is analogous to the signature of a manifold, which is defined for 4k-dimensional manifolds (doubly even-dimensional); this 4-fold periodicity corresponds to the 4-fold periodicity of L-theory. The Arf invariant can also be defined more generally for certain 2k-dimensional manifolds.

Definitions

The Arf invariant belongs to a quadratic form over a field K of characteristic 2. Any binary non-singular quadratic form over K is equivalent to a form $q(x,y)=a{x}^2+xy+b{y}^2$ with $a,b$ in K. The Arf invariant is defined to be the product $ab$. If the form $q^{\prime }(x,y)=a^{\prime }{x}^2+x^{\prime }{y}^{\prime }+b^{\prime }{y}^2$ is equivalent to $q(x,y)$, then the products $ab$ and $a^{\prime }{b}^{\prime }$ differ by an element of the form $u^2+u$ with $u$ in K. These elements form an additive subgroup U of K. Hence the coset of $ab$ modulo U is an invariant of $q$, which means that it is not changed when $q$ is replaced by an equivalent form.

Every nonsingular quadratic form $q$ over K is equivalent to a direct sum $q=q_1+...+q_r$ of nonsingular binary forms. This has been shown by Arf but it had been earlier observed by Dickson in the case of finite fields of characteristic 2. The Arf invariant Arf($q$) is defined to be the sum of the Arf invariants of the $q_i$. By definition, this is a coset of K modulo U. Arf has shown that indeed Arf($q$) does not change if $q$ is replaced by an equivalent quadratic form, which is to say that it is an invariant of $q$.

The Arf invariant is additive; in other words, the Arf invariant of an orthogonal sum of two quadratic forms is the sum of their Arf invariants.

Arf's main results

If the field K is perfect then every nonsingular quadratic form over K is uniquely determined (up to equivalence) by its dimension and its Arf invariant. In particular this holds over the field F₂. In this case U=0 and hence the Arf invariant is an element of the base field F₂; it is either 0 or 1.

If the field is not perfect then the Clifford algebra is another important invariant of a quadratic form. For various fields Arf has shown that every quadratic form is completely characterized by its dimension, its Arf invariant and its Clifford algebra. Examples of such fields are function fields (or power series fields) of one variable over perfect base fields.

Quadratic forms over F₂

Over F₂ the Arf invariant is 0 if the quadratic form is equivalent to a direct sum of copies of the binary form $xy$, and it is 1 if the form is a direct sum of $x^2+xy+y^2$ with a number of copies of $xy$.

William Browder has called the Arf invariant the democratic invariant because it is the value which is assumed most often by the quadratic form. Another characterization: q has Arf invariant 0 if and only if the underlying 2k-dimensional vector space over the field F₂ has a k-dimensional subspace on which q is identically 0 – that is, a totally isotropic subspace of half the dimension; its isotropy index is k (this is the maximum dimension of a totally isotropic subspace of a nonsingular form).

The Arf invariant in topology

Let M be a compact, connected 2k-dimensional manifold with a boundary $\partial M$ such that the induced morphisms in ${\mathbb{\mathbb{Z}}}_2$-coefficient homology

$H_k(M,\partial M;{\mathbb{\mathbb{Z}}}_2)\to H_{k-1}(\partial M;{\mathbb{\mathbb{Z}}}_2)$, $H_k(\partial M;{\mathbb{\mathbb{Z}}}_2)\to H_k(M;{\mathbb{\mathbb{Z}}}_2)$

are both zero (e.g. if $M$ is closed). The intersection form

$\lambda :H_k(M;{\mathbb{\mathbb{Z}}}_2)\times H_k(M;{\mathbb{\mathbb{Z}}}_2)\to {\mathbb{\mathbb{Z}}}_2$

is non-singular. (Topologists usually write F₂ as ${\mathbb{\mathbb{Z}}}_2$.) A quadratic refinement for $\lambda$ is a function $\mu :H_k(M;{\mathbb{\mathbb{Z}}}_2)\to {\mathbb{\mathbb{Z}}}_2$ which satisfies

$\mu (x+y)+\mu (x)+\mu (y)\equiv \lambda (x,y)(\mathrm{mod}2)\mathrm{\forall }x,y\in H_k(M;{\mathbb{\mathbb{Z}}}_2)$

Let $\{x,y\}$ be any 2-dimensional subspace of $H_k(M;{\mathbb{\mathbb{Z}}}_2)$, such that $\lambda (x,y)=1$. Then there are two possibilities. Either all of $\mu (x+y),\mu (x),\mu (y)$ are 1, or else just one of them is 1, and the other two are 0. Call the first case $H^{1,1}$, and the second case $H^{0,0}$. Since every form is equivalent to a symplectic form, we can always find subspaces $\{x,y\}$ with x and y being $\lambda$-dual. We can therefore split $H_k(M;{\mathbb{\mathbb{Z}}}_2)$ into a direct sum of subspaces isomorphic to either $H^{0,0}$ or $H^{1,1}$. Furthermore, by a clever change of basis, $H^{0,0}\oplus H^{0,0}\cong H^{1,1}\oplus H^{1,1}$. We therefore define the Arf invariant

$Arf(H_k(M;{\mathbb{\mathbb{Z}}}_2);\mu )$ = (number of copies of $H^{1,1}$ in a decomposition Mod 2) $\in {\mathbb{\mathbb{Z}}}_2$.

Examples

• Let $M$ be a compact, connected, oriented 2-dimensional manifold, i.e. a surface, of genus $g$ such that the boundary $\partial M$ is either empty or is connected. Embed $M$ in $S^m$, where $m\ge 4$. Choose a framing of M, that is a trivialization of the normal (m-2)-plane vector bundle. (This is possible for $m=3$, so is certainly possible for $m\ge 4$). Choose a symplectic basis $x_1,x_2,\dots ,x_{2g-1},x_{2g}$ for $H_1(M)={\mathbb{\mathbb{Z}}}^{2g}$. Each basis element is represented by an embedded circle $x_i:S^1\subset M$. The normal (m-1)-plane vector bundle of $S^1\subset M\subset S^m$ has two trivializations, one determined by a standard framing of a standard embedding $S^1\subset S^m$ and one determined by the framing of M, which differ by a map $S^1\to SO(m-1)$ i.e. an element of ${\pi }_1(SO(m-1))\cong {\mathbb{\mathbb{Z}}}_2$ for $m\ge 4$. This can also be viewed as the framed cobordism class of $S^1$ with this framing in the 1-dimensional framed cobordism group ${\mathrm{\Omega }}_1^{framed}\cong {\pi }_m(S^{m-1})(m\ge 4)\cong {\mathbb{\mathbb{Z}}}_2$, which is generated by the circle $S^1$ with the Lie group framing. The isomorphism here is via the Pontrjagin-Thom construction.) Define $\mu (x)\in {\mathbb{\mathbb{Z}}}_2$ to be this element. The Arf invariant of the framed surface is now defined

$\mathrm{\Phi }(M)=Arf(H_1(M,\partial M;{\mathbb{\mathbb{Z}}}_2);\mu )\in {\mathbb{\mathbb{Z}}}_2$

Note that ${\pi }_1(SO(2))\cong \mathbb{\mathbb{Z}}$, so we had to stabilise, taking $m$ to be at least 4, in order to get an element of ${\mathbb{\mathbb{Z}}}_2$. The case $m=3$ is also admissible as long as we take the residue modulo 2 of the framing.

• The Arf invariant $\mathrm{\Phi }(M)$ of a framed surface detects whether there is a 3-manifold whose boundary is the given surface which extends the given framing. This is because $H^{1,1}$ does not bound. $H^{1,1}$ represents a torus $T^2$ with a trivialisation on both generators of $H_1(T^2;{\mathbb{\mathbb{Z}}}_2)$ which twists an odd number of times. The key fact is that up to homotopy there are two choices of trivialisation of a trivial 3-plane bundle over a circle, corresponding to the two elements of ${\pi }_1(SO(3))$. An odd number of twists, known as the Lie group framing, does not extend across a disc, whilst an even number of twists does. (Note that this corresponds to putting a spin structure on our surface.) Pontrjagin used the Arf invariant of framed surfaces to compute the 2-dimensional framed cobordism group ${\mathrm{\Omega }}_2^{framed}\cong {\pi }_m(S^{m-2})(m\ge 4)\cong {\mathbb{\mathbb{Z}}}_2$, which is generated by the torus $T^2$ with the Lie group framing. The isomorphism here is via the Pontrjagin-Thom construction.

• Let $(M^2,\partial M)\subset S^3$ be a Seifert surface for a knot, $\partial M=K:S^1\hookrightarrow S^3$, which can be represented as a disc $D^2$ with bands attached. The bands will typically be twisted and knotted. Each band corresponds to a generator $x\in H_1(M;{\mathbb{\mathbb{Z}}}_2)$. $x$ can be represented by a circle which traverses one of the bands. Define $\mu (x)$ to be the number of full twists in the band modulo 2. Suppose we let $S^3$ bound $D^4$, and push the Seifert surface $M$ into $D^4$, so that its boundary still resides in $S^3$. Around any generator $x\in H_1(M,\partial M)$, we now have a trivial normal 3-plane vector bundle. Trivialise it using the trivial framing of the normal bundle to the embedding $M\hookrightarrow D^4$ for 2 of the sections required. For the third, choose a section which remains normal to $x$, whilst always remaining tangent to $M$. This trivialisation again determines an element of ${\pi }_1(SO(3))$, which we take to be $\mu (x)$. Note that this coincides with the previous definition of $\mu$.

• The Arf invariant of a knot is defined via its Seifert surface. It is independent of the choice of Seifert surface (The basic surgery change of S-equivalence, adding/removing a tube, adds/deletes a $H^{0,0}$ direct summand), and so is a knot invariant. It is additive under connected sum, and vanishes on slice knots, so is a knot concordance invariant.

• The intersection form on the 2k+1-dimensional ${\mathbb{\mathbb{Z}}}_2$-coefficient homology $H_{2k+1}(M;{\mathbb{\mathbb{Z}}}_2)$ of a framed 4k+2-dimensional manifold M has a quadratic refinement $\mu$, which depends on the framing. For $k\ne 0,1,3$ and $x\in H_{2k+1}(M;{\mathbb{\mathbb{Z}}}_2)$ represented by an embedding $x:S^{2k+1}\subset M$ the value $\mu (x)\in {\mathbb{\mathbb{Z}}}_2$ is 0 or 1, according as to the normal bundle of $x$ is trivial or not. The Kervaire invariant of the framed 4k+2-dimensional manifold M is the Arf invariant of the quadratic refinement $\mu$ on $H_{2k+1}(M;{\mathbb{\mathbb{Z}}}_2)$. The Kervaire invariant is a homomorphism ${\pi }_{4k+2}^S\to {\mathbb{\mathbb{Z}}}_2$ on the 4k+2-dimensional stable homotopy group of spheres. The Kervaire invariant can also be defined for a 4k+2-dimensional manifold M which is framed except at a point.

• In surgery theory, for any $4k+2$-dimensional normal map $(f,b):M\to X$ there is defined a nonsingular quadratic form $(K_{2k+1}(M;{\mathbb{\mathbb{Z}}}_2),\mu )$ on the ${\mathbb{\mathbb{Z}}}_2$-coefficient homology kernel

$K_{2k+1}(M;{\mathbb{\mathbb{Z}}}_2)=ker(f_{*}:H_{2k+1}(M;{\mathbb{\mathbb{Z}}}_2)\to H_{2k+1}(X;{\mathbb{\mathbb{Z}}}_2))$ refining the homological intersection form $\lambda$. The Arf invariant of this form is the Kervaire invariant of (f,b). In the special case $X=S^{4k+2}$ this is the Kervaire invariant of M. The Kervaire invariant features in the classification of exotic spheres by Kervaire and Milnor, and more generally in the classification of manifolds by surgery theory. Browder defined $\mu$ using functional Steenrod squares, and Wall defined $\mu$ using framed immersions. The quadratic enhancement $\mu (x)$ crucially provides more information than $\lambda (x,x)$ : it is possible to kill x by surgery if and only if $\mu (x)=0$. The corresponding Kervaire invariant detects the surgery obstruction of $(f,b)$ in the L-group $L_{4k+2}(\mathbb{\mathbb{Z}})={\mathbb{\mathbb{Z}}}_2$.

See also

• de Rham invariant, a mod 2 invariant of (4k+1)-dimensional manifolds

Notes

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References

• See Lickorish (1997) for the relation between the Arf invariant and the Jones polynomial.
• See Chapter 3 of Carter's book for another equivalent definition of the Arf invariant in terms of self-intersections of discs in 4-dimensional space.

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• Glen Bredon: Topology and Geometry, 1993, ISBN 0-387-97926-3.
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• J. Scott Carter: How Surfaces Intersect in Space, Series on Knots and Everything, 1993, ISBN 981-02-1050-7.
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  Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.
  
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  Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region
  
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  15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.
  
  To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010
• Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.
  
  Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.
  
  In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.
  
  Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region
  
  Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.
  
  15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.
  
  To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010
• W. B. Raymond Lickorish, An Introduction to Knot Theory, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, Springer, 1997, ISBN 0-387-98254-X
• Many property agents need to declare for the PIC grant in Singapore. However, not all of them know find out how to do the correct process for getting this PIC scheme from the IRAS. There are a number of steps that you need to do before your software can be approved.
  
  Naturally, you will have to pay a safety deposit and that is usually one month rent for annually of the settlement. That is the place your good religion deposit will likely be taken into account and will kind part or all of your security deposit. Anticipate to have a proportionate amount deducted out of your deposit if something is discovered to be damaged if you move out. It's best to you'll want to test the inventory drawn up by the owner, which can detail all objects in the property and their condition. If you happen to fail to notice any harm not already mentioned within the inventory before transferring in, you danger having to pay for it yourself.
  
  In case you are in search of an actual estate or Singapore property agent on-line, you simply should belief your intuition. It's because you do not know which agent is nice and which agent will not be. Carry out research on several brokers by looking out the internet. As soon as if you end up positive that a selected agent is dependable and reliable, you can choose to utilize his partnerise in finding you a home in Singapore. Most of the time, a property agent is taken into account to be good if he or she locations the contact data on his website. This may mean that the agent does not mind you calling them and asking them any questions relating to new properties in singapore in Singapore. After chatting with them you too can see them in their office after taking an appointment.
  
  Have handed an trade examination i.e Widespread Examination for House Brokers (CEHA) or Actual Property Agency (REA) examination, or equal; Exclusive brokers are extra keen to share listing information thus making certain the widest doable coverage inside the real estate community via Multiple Listings and Networking. Accepting a severe provide is simpler since your agent is totally conscious of all advertising activity related with your property. This reduces your having to check with a number of agents for some other offers. Price control is easily achieved. Paint work in good restore-discuss with your Property Marketing consultant if main works are still to be done. Softening in residential property prices proceed, led by 2.8 per cent decline within the index for Remainder of Central Region
  
  Once you place down the one per cent choice price to carry down a non-public property, it's important to accept its situation as it is whenever you move in – faulty air-con, choked rest room and all. Get round this by asking your agent to incorporate a ultimate inspection clause within the possibility-to-buy letter. HDB flat patrons routinely take pleasure in this security net. "There's a ultimate inspection of the property two days before the completion of all HDB transactions. If the air-con is defective, you can request the seller to repair it," says Kelvin.
  
  15.6.1 As the agent is an intermediary, generally, as soon as the principal and third party are introduced right into a contractual relationship, the agent drops out of the image, subject to any problems with remuneration or indemnification that he could have against the principal, and extra exceptionally, against the third occasion. Generally, agents are entitled to be indemnified for all liabilities reasonably incurred within the execution of the brokers´ authority.
  
  To achieve the very best outcomes, you must be always updated on market situations, including past transaction information and reliable projections. You could review and examine comparable homes that are currently available in the market, especially these which have been sold or not bought up to now six months. You'll be able to see a pattern of such report by clicking here It's essential to defend yourself in opposition to unscrupulous patrons. They are often very skilled in using highly unethical and manipulative techniques to try and lure you into a lure. That you must also protect your self, your loved ones, and personal belongings as you'll be serving many strangers in your home. Sign a listing itemizing of all of the objects provided by the proprietor, together with their situation. HSR Prime Recruiter 2010
• L. Pontrjagin, Smooth manifolds and their applications in homotopy theory American Mathematical Society Translations, Ser. 2, Vol. 11, pp. 1–114 (1959)