Liouville–Neumann series

In mathematics, Itō's lemma is an identity used in Itō calculus to find the differential of a time-dependent function of a stochastic process; it serves as the stochastic calculus counterpart of the chain rule. It is named after Kiyoshi Itō. It is best memorized using the Taylor series expansion of the function up to its second derivatives and identifying the square of an increment in the stochastic process with an increment in time. The lemma is widely employed in mathematical finance, and its best known application is in the derivation of the Black–Scholes equation for option values. Ito's Lemma is occasionally referred to as the Itō–Doeblin Theorem in recognition of the recently discovered work of Wolfgang Doeblin.

Mathematical formulation of Itō's lemma

In the following subsections we discuss versions of Itō's lemma for different types of stochastic processes.

Itō drift-diffusion processes

In its simplest form, Itō's lemma states the following: for an Itō drift-diffusion process

$d{X}_t={\mu }_{t}dt+{\sigma }_{t}d{B}_t$

and any twice differentiable scalar function ƒ(t, x) of two real variables t and x, one has

$\begin{array}{r}df(t,X_t)=(\frac{\partial f}{\partial t}+{\mu }_t\frac{\partial f}{\partial x}+\frac{1}{2}{\sigma }_t^2\frac{{\partial }^{2}f}{\partial x^2})dt+{\sigma }_t\frac{\partial f}{\partial x}d{B}_t.\end{array}$

This immediately implies that ƒ(t,X) is itself an Itō drift-diffusion process.

In higher dimensions, Ito's lemma states

$df(t,{\mathbf{X}}_t)=\frac{\partial f}{\partial t}dt+({\mathrm{\nabla }}_{\mathbf{X}}^{\mathsf{T}}f)d{\mathbf{X}}_t+\frac{1}{2}(d{\mathbf{X}}_t^{\mathsf{T}})(\underset{\mathbf{X}}{\overset{2}{\mathrm{\nabla }}}f)d{\mathbf{X}}_t,$

where ${\mathbf{X}}_t^{\mathsf{T}}=(X_{t,1},X_{t,2},\dots ,X_{t,n})$ is a vector of Itō processes, ${\mathrm{\nabla }}_{\mathbf{X}}f=\partial f/\partial \mathbf{X}$ is the gradient of ƒ w.r.t. X, and $\underset{\mathbf{X}}{\overset{2}{\mathrm{\nabla }}}f={\mathrm{\nabla }}_{\mathbf{X}}{\mathrm{\nabla }}_{\mathbf{X}}^{\mathsf{T}}f$ is the Hessian matrix of ƒ w.r.t. X.

Continuous semimartingales

More generally, the above formula also holds for any continuous d-dimensional semimartingale X = (X¹,X²,…,X^d), and twice continuously differentiable and real valued function f on R^d. Some people prefer to present the formula in another form with cross variation shown explicitly as follows, f(X) is a semimartingale satisfying

$df(X_t)=\sum _{i=1}^d{f}_i(X_t)d{X}_t^i+\frac{1}{2}\sum _{i,j=1}^d{f}_{i,j}(X_t)d[X^i,X^j{]}_t.$

In this expression, the term f_i represents the partial derivative of f(x) with respect to xⁱ, and [Xⁱ,X^j ] is the covariation process of Xⁱ and X^j.

Poisson jump processes

We may also define functions on discontinuous stochastic processes.

Let h be the jump intensity. The Poisson process model for jumps is that the probability of one jump in the interval $[t,t+\mathrm{\Delta }t]$ is $h\mathrm{\Delta }t$ plus higher order terms. h could be a constant, a deterministic function of time, or a stochastic process. The survival probability $p_s(t)$ is the probability that no jump has occurred in the interval $[0,t]$. The change in the survival probability is

$d{p}_s(t)=-p_s(t)h(t)dt.$

So

$p_s(t)=\exp (-\underset{0}{\overset{t}{\int }}h(u)du).$

Let $S(t)$ be a discontinuous stochastic process. Write $S(t^{-})$ for the value of S as we approach t from the left. Write $d_{j}S(t)$ for the non-infinitesimal change in $S(t)$ as a result of a jump. Then

$d_{j}S(t)=\underset{\mathrm{\Delta }t\to 0}{\lim }(S(t+\mathrm{\Delta }t)-S(t^{-}))$

Let z be the magnitude of the jump and let $\eta (S(t^{-}),z)$ be the distribution of z. The expected magnitude of the jump is

$E[d_{j}S(t)]=h(S(t^{-}))dt\underset{z}{\int }z\eta (S(t^{-}),z)dz.$

Define $d{J}_S(t)$, a compensated process and martingale, as

$d{J}_S(t)=d_{j}S(t)-E[d_{j}S(t)]=S(t)-S(t^{-})-(h(S(t^{-}))\underset{z}{\int }z\eta (S(t^{-}),z)dz)dt.$

Then

$d_{j}S(t)=E[d_{j}S(t)]+d{J}_S(t)=h(S(t^{-}))(\underset{z}{\int }z\eta (S(t^{-}),z)dz)dt+d{J}_S(t).$

Consider a function $g(S(t),t)$ of jump process $dS(t)$. If $S(t)$ jumps by $\mathrm{\Delta }s$ then $g(t)$ jumps by $\mathrm{\Delta }g$. $\mathrm{\Delta }g$ is drawn from distribution ${\eta }_g()$ which may depend on $g(t^{-})$, dg and $S(t^{-})$. The jump part of $g$ is

$\begin{array}{rl}g(t)-g(t^{-})& =h(t)dt\underset{\mathrm{\Delta }g}{\int }\mathrm{\Delta }g{\eta }_g(\cdot )d\mathrm{\Delta }g+d{J}_g(t).\end{array}$

If $S$ contains drift, diffusion and jump parts, then Itō's Lemma for $g(S(t),t)$ is

$\begin{array}{rl}dg(t)& =(\frac{\partial g}{\partial t}+\mu \frac{\partial g}{\partial S}+\frac{1}{2}{\sigma }^2\frac{{\partial }^{2}g}{\partial S^2}+h(t)\underset{\mathrm{\Delta }g}{\int }(\mathrm{\Delta }g{\eta }_g(\cdot )d\mathrm{\Delta }g))dt+\frac{\partial g}{\partial S}\sigma dW(t)+d{J}_g(t).\end{array}$

Itō's lemma for a process which is the sum of a drift-diffusion process and a jump process is just the sum of the Itō's lemma for the individual parts.

Non-continuous semimartingales

Itō's lemma can also be applied to general d-dimensional semimartingales, which need not be continuous. In general, a semimartingale is a càdlàg process, and an additional term needs to be added to the formula to ensure that the jumps of the process are correctly given by Itō's lemma. For any cadlag process Y_t, the left limit in t is denoted by Y_t-, which is a left-continuous process. The jumps are written as ΔY_t = Y_t - Y_t-. Then, Itō's lemma states that if X = (X¹,X²,…,X^d) is a d-dimensional semimartingale and f is a twice continuously differentiable real valued function on R^d then f(X) is a semimartingale, and

$\begin{array}{rl}f(X_t)=& f(X_0)+\sum _{i=1}^d\underset{0}{\overset{t}{\int }}{f}_i(X_{s-})d{X}_s^i+\frac{1}{2}\sum _{i,j=1}^d\underset{0}{\overset{t}{\int }}{f}_{i,j}(X_{s-})d[X^i,X^j{]}_s\\ & +\sum _{s\le t}(\mathrm{\Delta }f(X_s)-\sum _{i=1}^d{f}_i(X_{s-})\mathrm{\Delta }{X}_s^i-\frac{1}{2}\sum _{i,j=1}^d{f}_{i,j}(X_{s-})\mathrm{\Delta }{X}_s^i\mathrm{\Delta }{X}_s^j).\end{array}$

This differs from the formula for continuous semimartingales by the additional term summing over the jumps of X, which ensures that the jump of the right hand side at time t is Δf(X_t).

Informal derivation

A formal proof of the lemma requires us to take the limit of a sequence of random variables, which is not done here. Instead, we give a sketch of how one can derive Itō's lemma by expanding a Taylor series and applying the rules of stochastic calculus.

Assume the Itō process is in the form of

$dx=adt+bdB.$ (dB, Brownian motion)

Expanding f(x, t) in a Taylor series in x and t we have

$df=\frac{\partial f}{\partial x}dx+\frac{\partial f}{\partial t}dt+\frac{1}{2}\frac{{\partial }^{2}f}{\partial x^2}d{x}^2+\cdots$

and substituting a dt + b dB for dx gives

$df=\frac{\partial f}{\partial x}(adt+bdB)+\frac{\partial f}{\partial t}dt+\frac{1}{2}\frac{{\partial }^{2}f}{\partial x^2}(a^{2}d{t}^2+2abdtdB+b^{2}d{B}^2)+\cdots .$

In the limit as dt tends to 0, the dt² and dt dB terms disappear but the dB² term tends to dt. The latter can be shown if we prove that

$d{B}^2\to E(d{B}^2),$ since $E(d{B}^2)=dt$; see Wiener process# Basic properties.

Deleting the dt² and dt dB terms, substituting dt for dB², and collecting the dt and dB terms, we obtain

$df=(a\frac{\partial f}{\partial x}+\frac{\partial f}{\partial t}+\frac{1}{2}{b}^2\frac{{\partial }^{2}f}{\partial x^2})dt+b\frac{\partial f}{\partial x}dB$

as required.

The formal proof is somewhat technical and is beyond the current scope of this article.

Examples

Geometric Brownian motion

A process S is said to follow a geometric Brownian motion with volatility σ and drift μ if it satisfies the stochastic differential equation dS = S(σdB + μdt), for a Brownian motion B. Applying Itō's lemma with f(S) = log(S) gives

$\begin{array}{rl}d\log (S)& =f^{\prime }(S)dS+\frac{1}{2}{f}^{\prime \prime }(S)S^2{\sigma }^{2}dt\\ & =\frac{1}{S}(\sigma SdB+\mu Sdt)-\frac{1}{2}{\sigma }^{2}dt\\ & =\sigma dB+(\mu -{\sigma }^2/2)dt.\end{array}$

It follows that log(S_t) = log(S₀) + σB_t + (μ − σ²/2)t, and exponentiating gives the expression for S,

$S_t=S_0\exp (\sigma B_t+(\mu -{\sigma }^2/2)t).$

The correction term of $-{\sigma }^2/2$ corresponds to the difference between the median and mean of the log-normal distribution, or equivalently for this distribution, the geometric mean and arithmetic mean, with the median (geometric mean) being lower. This is due to the AM–GM inequality, and corresponds to the logarithm being convex down, so the correction term can accordingly be interpreted as a convexity correction. This is an infinitesimal version of the fact that the annualized return is less than the average return, with the difference proportional to the variance. See geometric moments of the log-normal distribution for further discussion.

The same factor of ${\sigma }^2/2$ appears in the d₁ and d₂ auxiliary variables of the Black–Scholes formula, and can be interpreted as a consequence of Itō's lemma.

The Doléans exponential

The Doléans exponential (or stochastic exponential) of a continuous semimartingale X can be defined as the solution to the SDE dY = Y dX with initial condition Y₀ = 1. It is sometimes denoted by PROPERTY builders did not have the simplest year, what with the cooling measures imposed in January and the loan curbs in June, but some still managed to do effectively while others made their first foray abroad.

As a public-listed company and a pioneer in the improvement of landed properties in Singapore, we have now been constructing some of Singapore's nicely-recognized, established residential estates for over 50 years. Our many developments in Singapore are an affidavit of our steady want to create not just high quality houses however communities for you and your family members Hotel Properties Limited (HPL) was listed on the Inventory Trade of Singapore in 1982. Beginning with simply the Hilton Lodge in Singapore, HPL has expanded rapidly through the years. As we speak HPL has pursuits in 19 resorts with almost 4000 rooms in 8 countries. An Choice or Settlement/Contract for the Buy of a Home or Flat will be formedin many ways e.g. A gaggle of persons, whether in partnership or otherwise

Certainly one of Asia's premier property firms, Keppel Land is recognised for its sterling portfolio of award-profitable residential developments and funding-grade business properties as well as excessive requirements of company governance and transparency. Keppel Land is without doubt one of the largest listed property corporations by total assets on the Singapore Change. The Group's total assets amounted to about $13.eight billion as at 31 March 2014. Additionally it is a component of a number of stock indices including the FTSE ST Real Property Index, FTSE ST China Prime Index, FTSE All-World Index, FTSE Asia Pacific ex-Japan Index, FTSE EPRA/NAREIT World Real Estate Index and EPRA/NAREIT Index. WOODSVALE PERSONAL CONDOMINIUM CONDOMINIUM WOODSVALE CLOSE, SINGAPORE (DISTRICT thirteen) Industrial

LINCOLN RESIDENCES, THE NON-PUBLIC CONDOMINIUM APARTMENT SURREY STREET, SINGAPORE (DISTRICT eleven) LUCIDA NON-PUBLIC CONDOMINIUM APARTMENT SUFFOLK ROAD, SINGAPORE (DISTRICT 11) LUMOS, THE PRIVATE CONDOMINIUM APARTMENT LEONIE HILL, SINGAPORE (DISTRICT 09) LUXURIE, THE PRIVATE CONDOMINIUM CONDOMINIUM COMPASSVALE BOW, SINGAPORE (DISTRICT 19) M66 NON-PUBLIC CONDOMINIUM RESIDENCE MOONSTONE LANE, SINGAPORE (DISTRICT 12) MARINA BAY SUITES PRIVATE CONDOMINIUM CONDOMINIUM CENTRAL BOULEVARD, SINGAPORE (DISTRICT 01) MEIER SUITES PERSONAL CONDOMINIUM house in singapore MARGATE STREET, SINGAPORE (DISTRICT 15) MKZ, THE NON-PUBLIC CONDOMINIUM CONDO MACKENZIE STREET, SINGAPORE (DISTRICT 09) MONTCLAIR @ WHITLEY CLUSTER STRATA HOUSE WHITLEY HIGHWAY, SINGAPORE (DISTRICT 11) Condominiums by District

The Singapore Property Awards recognise excellence in actual estate development initiatives or individual properties in terms of design, aesthetics, functionality, contribution to the constructed atmosphere and neighborhood at massive. It represents an outstanding achievement which developers, professionals and property house owners aspire to achieve. It bestows upon the winner the correct to use the coveted award emblem recognised extensively throughout the FIABCI network.

ADRIA NON-PUBLIC CONDOMINIUM CONDOMINIUM DERBYSHIRE HIGHWAY, THOMSON ROAD, SINGAPORE (DISTRICT eleven) AMBER RESIDENCES (PREPARED HOUSES) PRIVATE CONDOMINIUM RESIDENCE AMBER STREET, SINGAPORE (DISTRICT 15) ARC AT TAMPINES GOVERNMENT CONDOMINIUM APARTMENT TAMPINES AVENUE 8, SINGAPORE (DISTRICT 18) ARDMORE RESIDENCE NON-PUBLIC CONDOMINIUM CONDO ARDMORE PARK, SINGAPORE (DISTRICT 10) ARISTO @ AMBER , THE PRIVATE CONDOMINIUM CONDOMINIUM AMBER STREET, SINGAPORE (DISTRICT 15) ASPEN LINQ NON-PUBLIC CONDOMINIUM RESIDENCE INSTITUTION HILL, SINGAPORE (DISTRICT 09) BARTLEY RESIDENCES NON-PUBLIC CONDOMINIUM HOUSE BARTLEY HIGHWAY, SINGAPORE (DISTRICT 19) BEACON HEIGHTS PERSONAL CONDOMINIUM CONDO MAR THOMA STREET, SINGAPORE (DISTRCT 12) title searches and authorized requisitions on the property; and

Hongkong Land is a number one property funding, administration and growth group with a serious portfolio in Hong Kong and different property pursuits in Asia. As considered one of Singapore's largest property gamers, Singapore Land (SingLand) is synonymous with premier property developments in both prime and suburban areas. YHS made its first foray into property improvement with Tivoli Gardens, a 59-unit landed estate in District 19. This was adopted by the launch of The Sterling, a freehold condominium in Bukit Timah, and landed projects resembling Tai Keng Villas, Parry Inexperienced, Chuan Villas and Princeton Vale. Its newest growth is JARDIN, an exclusive property nestled alongside Bukit Timah/Dunearn Highway Learn More Can Singapore safely deflate its property market?

GPS Funding Sales operates like an entrepreneur group drawing on wealth of experiences with in depth insight locally and having a global perspective. We are in a position to provide investment methods that tailor-made to the clients profile. Our purchasers starting from Wealth Fund managers, Multinational Companies, Small Medium Enterprise companies, Property Developers and Ultra Networth Individual. En-bloc Sales Department Sustainability, property growth, sustainability initiatives, tripple backside line, measuring sustainability, reporting, metrics and benchmarks When you've loved what you've got read thus far why not sign up for our FREE property alert and online journal PropertyWire Confidential. District 23, ninety nine years Leasehold condominium BUILD TO ALTER(X). Applying Itō's lemma with f(Y) = log(Y) gives

$\begin{array}{rl}d\log (Y)& =\frac{1}{Y}dY-\frac{1}{2Y^2}d[Y]\\ & =dX-\frac{1}{2}d[X].\end{array}$

Exponentiating gives the solution

$Y_t=\exp (X_t-X_0-[X{]}_t/2).$

Black–Scholes formula

Itō's lemma can be used to derive the Black–Scholes equation for an option. Suppose a stock price follows a Geometric Brownian motion given by the stochastic differential equation dS = S(σdB + μ dt). Then, if the value of an option at time t is f(t,S_t), Itō's lemma gives

$df(t,S_t)=(\frac{\partial f}{\partial t}+\frac{1}{2}{\left(S_t\sigma \right)}^2\frac{{\partial }^{2}f}{\partial S^2})dt+\frac{\partial f}{\partial S}d{S}_t.$

The term (∂f/∂S) dS represents the change in value in time dt of the trading strategy consisting of holding an amount ∂f/∂S of the stock. If this trading strategy is followed, and any cash held is assumed to grow at the risk free rate r, then the total value V of this portfolio satisfies the SDE

$d{V}_t=r(V_t-\frac{\partial f}{\partial S}{S}_t)dt+\frac{\partial f}{\partial S}d{S}_t.$

This strategy replicates the option if V = f(t,S). Combining these equations gives the celebrated Black-Scholes equation

$\frac{\partial f}{\partial t}+\frac{1}{2}{\sigma }^2{S}^2\frac{{\partial }^{2}f}{\partial S^2}+rS\frac{\partial f}{\partial S}-rf=0.$

See also

• Wiener process
• Itō calculus
• Feynman–Kac formula

Notes

43 year old Petroleum Engineer Harry from Deep River, usually spends time with hobbies and interests like renting movies, property developers in singapore new condominium and vehicle racing. Constantly enjoys going to destinations like Camino Real de Tierra Adentro.

References

• Kiyoshi Itō (1944). Stochastic Integral. Proc. Imperial Acad. Tokyo 20, 519-524. This is the paper with the Ito Formula; Online
• Kiyoshi Itō (1951). On stochastic differential equations. Memoirs, American Mathematical Society 4, 1–51. Online
• Hagen Kleinert (2004). Path Integrals in Quantum Mechanics, Statistics, Polymer Physics, and Financial Markets, 4th edition, World Scientific (Singapore); Paperback ISBN 981-238-107-4. Also available online: PDF-files. This textbook also derives generalizations of Itō's lemma for non-Wiener (non-Gaussian) processes.
• Bernt Øksendal (2000). Stochastic Differential Equations. An Introduction with Applications, 5th edition, corrected 2nd printing. Springer. ISBN 3-540-63720-6. Sections 4.1 and 4.2.
• Domingo Tavella (2002). Quantitative Methods in Derivatives Pricing: An Introduction to Computational Finance, John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-27479-7. Pages 36–39.

External links

• Derivation, Prof. Thayer Watkins
• Informal proof, optiontutor